Paper-I — ADVERTISING AND MARKETING RESEARCH

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

• ¾ To discuss the foundations of research and audience analysis that is imperative to successful advertising.

Topic of lectures

• Fundamental of marketing research
• Product Research
• Copy research
• Copy testing measures and methods
• Print pretesting
• Broadcast pretesting
• Projective techniques
• Physiological rating scales
• Challenges to pre-testing.  E.g. The halo effect
• Post testing.

Paper-II — LEGAL ENVIRONMENT AND ADVERTISING ETHICS

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

• ¾ To provide a perspective on the Legal Environment in India.
• ¾ To guide students of media through the various ethics connected to Advertising.
• ¾ Maharashtra state centric cases to be discussed in class as the situation demands.

Topic of lectures

• Legal Environment
• Self-Regulation, Ethics and the Law
• Laws that affect Advertising in India
• Ethics
• Unfair Trade Practices and the Competition Act
• Consumer Rights and Laws
• Advertising and Society
• Critique of Advertising

Paper-III — FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT FOR MARKETING AND ADVERTISING

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Topic of lectures

• Introduction to Marketing and Advertising Finance
• Long Term Finance -Sources of Long Term Finance
• Short Term Finance
• Financial Statements
• Marketing Costs

Paper-IV — AGENCY MANAGEMENT

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

• ¾ To expose students to the business of advertising
• ¾ To familiarize students with the different aspects of running an ad agency

Topic of lectures

• Structure of an ad agency, functions of different departments, types of ad agency
• Client Servicing
• Marketing plan of the client
• Agency Finances
• Client’s evaluation of the agency
• Setting up an Agency
• Growing the Agency
• Sales Promotion Management

Paper-V — THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DIRECT MARKETING

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

To learn and understand :

• ¾ What Direct marketing is, including direct marketing terminology
• ¾ How direct marketing differs from “traditional marketing”
• ¾ Direct marketing techniques

Topic of lectures

• Definition and importance of direct marketing
• Economics of direct marketing
• Growing importance of Direct marketing in IMC mix
• Understanding the DM business
• Direct marketing strategies
• Direct marketing concepts
• Various direct marketing methods and media
• Future of direct marketing current and future Scenario
• Customer relationship management

Paper-VI — CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

• ¾ To sensitise students to the environment around them
• ¾ Developing a perspective towards issues related to the marginalized sections of the society

Topic of lectures

• Ecological system, services and Economics of Environmental Protection
• Concepts of human rights and civil liberties
• Regional issues – Economics, Social, Political
• Sugar Lobby, operation Flood, Terrorism, tribal Movement, etc.

Paper-I — ADVERTISING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY

Max. Marks: 100 (Theory:50, Internals: 50)

Objectives:

• ¾ To recognize the roles of advertising in modern society
• ¾ To understand the current developments and problems concerning advertising as an economic and social force.
• ¾ Appreciate the increasingly international nature of advertising.
• ¾ To analyze the interdependent nature of advertising and popular culture.

Topic of lectures

• Advertising in the Indian economy
• Advertising and culture
• Advertising and the audience
• Global advertising
• Internet marketing
• Social marketing.

Paper-II — COPYWRITING

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

• ¾ To familiarize the students with the concept of copywriting as selling through writing
• ¾ To develop their inherent writing skills
• ¾ To train students to generate, develop and express ideas effectively
• ¾ To familiarize students with contemporary advertising techniques and
• ¾ Practices

Topic of lectures

• Copywriting, Introduction, Responsibility of Copy writer
• Creative Strategy:  Planning and Development
• Phases of campaign creation
• Brief
• The big idea
• Writing for print media
• Understanding the medium and writing for TV, Cinema, Radio, Innovative medium, Internet, SMS.
• Principles of writing press release copy 05 Writing copy for mail order, direct mail, yellow pages, trade directory, classified advertisement, B2B advertising.
• Different types of copy.

Paper-III — ADVERTISING DESIGN (Project Paper)

Marks: 100 (Internal:0, External, Viva: 50)

Objectives:

• ¾ To expose students to the creative and technical aspects of art direction

Topic of lectures

• Introduction to the Art department in ad agency
• What is Art Direction –Making of an Art Director
• Introduction to colour – colour harmonies
• Introduction to Illusion -Principles and elements of design
• Introduction to Photography
• Introduction to Typography/Calligraphy-Word expression ,  Layout designing Logo designing
• Introduction to desktop publishing
• Introduction to Print Production -stationary design
• Working with copy –partner
• Art direction in print media
• Art direction in outdoor Transit/Ambient
• Art direction in films /television
• Art direction in internet and new media
• Art direction in Direct Mailers
• Advertising campaign planning :Art -Radio ,T.V, Newspaper, magazine outdoor
• Corporate Identity systems – Packaging , Brochure,P.O.P ,etc.
• How to brief the art direction and get the best out of him.

Paper-IV — CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

• ¾ To introduce the students to the complexities of consumer behavior.

Topic of lectures

• Introduction to Consumer Behaviour
• Communication
• Perception : Physical Psychological : Subliminal perception
• Cultural – Subculture (concepts and its impact on consumer behaviour)
• Learning –  Cognitive Theory, Conditioning Theory
• Attitude
• Motivation
• Personality
• Market Segmentation
• Social Class
• Groups
• Family
• The Consumer Decision making Process
• Adoption and Diffusion
• Indian Core Values

Paper-V — MEDIA PLANNING AND BUYING

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

• ¾ To develop knowledge of major media characteristics and buying advertising space in them to develop an understanding of procedures, requirements, and techniques of media planning.

Topic of lectures

• Media planning
• Sources of media research
• Selecting the suitable media options
• Criteria for selecting the media vehicles
• Media timing
• Comparing and Evaluating continuity ofmedia options/choices
• Deciding the ideal media mix
• The communications mix
• Media buying and negotiation
• Competitive media expenditure analysis
• The concept of aperture
• Scheduling and budgeting allocation
• Media plan evaluation
• Media presentations to the client
• Media audit

Paper-VI — BRAND BUILDING

Marks: 100 (Theory:60, Internals: 40)

Objectives:

• ¾ To provide an introduction to the concepts and practices of contemporary brand management.
• ¾ To understand the appropriate strategies and tactics to build, measure and manage Brand Equity.
• ¾ To learn to plan an effective advertising campaign

Topic of lectures

• The Brand
• Branding Strategies
• Introducing And Naming New Brands and Extensions
• Brand Positioning
• Brand Equity
• Brand Leveraging
• Managing Brands Over Time
• Building Brand On Internet
• Corporate Branding (Internal Assessment Only)
• Campaign Planning (Internal Assessment Only)

Of all the ads that you are exposed to daily, majority of them showcase women. The products (be it a deodorant for men, an apartment, a car or a home loan) in these ads do not necessarily cater to women, but then a woman is used to sell them. These ads create a specific image of women in order to market their product. However, the audience fails to understand that such ads try to manipulate the masses.  Usually, a mediocre company tries to sell its mediocre products by using a female model with a slim and sexy body, whose purpose is to attract attention. This way people remember the girl in the ad, the product she is endorsing and will purchase that product keeping the girl in mind, not the use and features of the product. In the case of products targeted at men, the use of females as sex objects is all the more because the presence of a woman is more than enough to catch the attention of men.  For example, all the axe body spray ads feature a string of good looking female models that pout and drool over the man using that particular deodorant. From a women’s perspective, this ad may not make sense but from a man’s point of view, the ad is simply awesome because it makes him believe that using this product will make him desirable to the ladies.

Consumer advertising projects an unrealistic image of women whose main features/qualities are being thin, having a fair unblemished complexion, and looking good. This significantly affects the way women think about themselves. Such ads suggest to women and girls that the only important thing about them is the way they look, causing many women to believe that their self-worth is dependent on the attention they receive from men which in turn depends on their looks. Like, the woman in the fairness cream ad who cannot get a job because she is dark skinned. Or the woman in the Clean and Dry Intimate Wash ad who feels her husband is not attracted to her because she isn’t fair ‘down under’. We know this to be highly exaggerated and downright false. But then these ads talk the language of the society and hence they work. This reinforcements of stereotypes works against the breaking of specific moulds in which women are carved.

A lot of ads portray women as sex objects. This is highly demeaning and degrading. An example of this is the GoDaddy.com ads. In most cases, the product has got nothing to do with sex or women, but still the tone of the ads is such so as to attract maximum attention.

Commoditisation of women as sex objects has a very detrimental effect on girls and women. The constant abuse of women’s sexuality to sell products in the beer, sports, film and music industries, for example, has completely distorted our understanding of sexuality and gender roles. “Sex sells” is one of the mantras of advertising.  Whether you want it or not, women are a huge part of today’s advertising business and the masses are totally besotted with ads that do have a female model in it.

As you see, a certain style of portrayal is what shapes perceptions of the society and the women who live in this society. One begets the other, and thus a vicious circle is set into motion. If we want to stop projecting women as sexual objects and commodities then we need to ensure they are not portrayed as such in advertisements. It follows, that ads which show women in a bad light must be banned so that society is not influenced by them.

Research has revealed that the media is responsible for influencing a major part of our daily life. Media has the power to call for a change in the attitudes and beliefs of the common man. The persuasive nature of the content presented in the media influences the thoughts and behavioural pattern of the general public. Therefore, it wouldn’t be wrong to say that media has a direct impact on the lifestyle and nature of society.

While most countries have gifted their citizens the freedom of speech and expression, some countries try to counter the abuse of this right by a select few by restricting the way in which this speech and expression are received. Basically, while you’re allowed to say anything you want and do whatever your heart desires (as long as it is within the legal framework), you may not be free to listen or to appreciate someone else’s speech or action (one that is deemed to be volatile or anti-social by a government body or the society). This is the whole crux of censorship; censoring or banning content (and its reception) that is deemed volatile, harmful to society and counter-productive.

But who decides what is volatile, counter-productive or harmful to national security/society? How is content to be classified as worthy of censoring or not?

It is governmental bodies and unwritten-yet-widely-followed-societal-norms that decide what needs to be censored or not. For example, most countries call for complete censorship of pornographic material. If aired on TV, or available on other easily accessible forms of media, this form of content can corrupt children and create havoc in the society. Similarly, violence and violent content, content that can hurt religious sentiments too demand complete censorship.

Also, the amount of censorship or the cut-off level which defines what to show and what not to show differs from country to country. One of the most common ways of media censorship is by enforcing age-limits. This means that people below a certain pre-determined age cannot view or be exposed to a certain form on content.

However, it is not so simple and easy to define what can be censored and when and how. Many burning questions demand immediate answers. How much freedom is good? What needs to censored and why? What’s the point of your right to speak if there is no one to listen to what you are saying? Doesn’t the very concept of censorship clash with the idea of democracy? If we allow censorhip, then what is the difference between democracy and dictatorship?

We all know and agree that media has brought about a major transformation in the way the masses think. Media has given them an excellent platform to present themselves before the world and to contribute in their own way to the changing world scenario. It is responsible for shrinking the world further.I think, media censorship is all about degree; about how much to show and how much to hide. I’d like to end by saying that if used properly, censorship serves as a valuable tool; if not then our right to creative freedom is at stake.

The immense progress in the fields on technology and communications has affected the way consumers’ process information, favouring rapid and efficient information exchange and interactivity. People are now favouring internet advertising which draws them into the feel and vibe of the brand them, rather than the ‘one-way’ advertising done via television, newspapers, magazines that simply informs and doesn’t give the consumer a chance to participate or engage with the brand. Keeping this trend in mind, one has seen the emergence and increasing importance of Viral Advertising.

What is viral advertising?

Technically speaking, viral marketing and / or advertising refers to marketing techniques that make use of social networks to bring about an increase in brand awareness, via a self-replicating viral process (something similar to the self-replication of a bacterial virus).

Many times, viral advertising refers to an offline process where the brand message spreads by word-of-mouth (from one consumer to the next). Such W-O-M (word-of-mouth) campaigns run on the principle of basic human nature i.e. a person will tell Three people about a service of product he likes and about Eleven people about a service or product he does not.  Therefore, if a consumer takes to a brand he will talk good about it and this positive spread of message (viral) will immensely help the brand in the long run. As opposed to, if he critics the brand, then his negative outburst will deter future customers from engaging with the brand, thus harming the brand.

Viral advertising types and examples

There is a common misconception that viral advertising is can be executed only on internet. But the truth is that many companies prefer offline viral advertising because of its high reach and low operating costs. So, viral advertising includes the online and offline activities performed by marketers in order to make the message viral and generate sufficient ‘buzz’ or ‘W-O-M’ for the brand.

Flash games, images, text messages, funny video clips, songs and advergames are the various tools that comprise of a viral campaign.

Examples of successful viral campaigns are:

• The “whassup?” viral ad from Budweiser
• Trojan condoms’ 2004 ‘Sex Olympics’ campaign
• Kolaveri Di – 3

Popularity and Cost Effectiveness

Viral advertising is personal and even though it is from an identified sponsor, it does not mean the companies pay for its distribution. Most of the classical viral ads circulating online start off as ads paid for by the sponsor brand, launched either on their own platform (company webpage or social media profile) or on social media websites such as YouTube. Consumers get the page link from there or copy the entire ad and forward it through e-mail or by posting it on a blog, webpage, and social media profile. In this ‘no cost’ manner, the word spreads and the brand emerges the ultimate winner. Thanks to social media platforms, it is becoming very easy for brands to simply get the word out and gather a large following.

Future of Viral advertising

In the Internet era, viral advertising presents itself as a huge opportunity, especially for companies who want low cost advertising solution. Moreover, viral ads can also be used for products that do not have the benefit of the “wow” factor. Create a funny video, a great song or a super game around the brand and it is sure to generate buzz. The biggest advantage of viral advertising is that it’s under the control of the consumers. And since, consumer is the king, and he likes viral advertising, it is here to stay.

T.Y.B.M.M. ADVERTISING Semester VI

1. 1. ADVERTISING AND MARKETING RESEARCH

• Fundamental Marketing Research Skills:
  • Research techniques
  • Sampling methods
  • Research Design
  • Steps in the Research Process
  • Questionnaire Development
  • Report writing
  • Data analysis
• Product research
  • New product research
  • Product specifications
  • Branding research
  • Pricing research
  • Packaging research
  • Product testing
  • Comparison tests
  • Analysis of trends, competition
  • Searching for and analyzing the competitive advantages
  • Advertising Content Analysis
• Copy research
  • Objectives and product appeals
  • Creative strategy research
  • Message element selection
  • Consumer attitude and usage studies
  • Concept testing
  • Name testing
  • Slogan testing
• Copy testing – different measures and methods
  • Few association tests
  • Direct questioning
  • Direct mail tests
  • Statement – comparison tests
  • Qualitative interviews
  • Focus groups moderating
  • Motivational research
  • Rating Scales
  • Steps
  • Importance
• The strengths and weaknesses of different qualitative methods used to help inspire ideas
• Criteria of validity sensitivity, stability, reproducibility, predictability.
• Test results as aid to creative judgment
• Pretesting
  • Pretesting objectives
  • Variables evaluated markets, consumers’ motives, messages, media
• Print Pretesting
• Broadcast Pretesting
  • Trailer tests
  • Theatre tests
  • Live telecast tests
  • Clutter tests
  • Television storyboard Pretesting
  • Radio commercial pretesting
• Projective techniques
  • Consumer jury
  • Matched samples
  • Word Association
  • Completion
  • Consultation
• Challenges to pretesting e.g. The Halo Effect
• Data interpretation and presentations
• Physiological rating scales
  • Pupil metric devices
  • Eye-movement camera
  • Galvanometer
  • Voice pitch analysis
  • Brain pattern analysis
• Post testing
  • Measuring advertising effectiveness
  • Attitude change
  • Recognition test
  • Aided recall
  • Unaided recall
  • Sales tests
  • Inquiry tests
  • Measurements of perception, communication, influence
  • Customer satisfaction research
  • Using qualitative research in advertising

2. LEGAL ENVIRONMENT AND ADVERTISING ETHICS

• Advertising and the law
  • Need for self regulation
  • Introduction to MRTP act
  • Introduction to ASCI and AAAI code of conduct
  • The standard contract between the agency and the advertiser
  • Self regulation by individual agencies
  • Drug and cosmetics act
  • Drugs and magic remedies (objectionable advertisement) act
  • Copyright act
  • Pharmacy act
  • Prize and competition act
  • Emblems and names (prevention of improper use) act
  • Obscenity act
• Ethical Issues in advertising
  • Puffery
  • Taste in advertising general guidelines
  • Advertising directed at cultural and religious minorities
  • Advertising to children
  • Use of women in advertising
  • Portraying minorities and women in ‘traditional’ roles and occupations
  • Depiction of old people
  • Stereotyping ethnic and racial
  • Advertising controversial products; alcohol. Tobacco, contraceptives
  • Manipulation of research in advertising
• Deceptive and Unfair trade Practices
  • False promises
  • Incomplete description
  • False comparisons
  • Misleading comparisons
  • Bait-and-switch offers
  • Visual distortions
  • False testimonials
  • Partial disclosures
  • Small print clarification
• Case studies of select ads that violate legal and ethical concerns
• Consumer guidance and concerns
  • Consumer protection act 1986
  • Essential commodity act
  • Standard of weights and measures act
  • Packaged commodities act
  • Prevention of food adulteration act
  • AGMARK, ISI
  • Role of PDS and consumer co-operatives
• Consumer forums
  • CGSI, CFBP, CERC, Grahak Panchayats
• Social criticism of advertising
  • Increasing the prevalence of materialism
  • Creating artificial needs
  • Idealizing the ‘good life’ stressing conformity with others
  • Encouraging instant gratification and a throwaway society
  • Promoting the good of the individual over the good of the society
  • Creating unrealistic ‘ideal’ characterizations
  • Using appeals that prey on feelings of inadequacy
• Social responsibilities of Advertising

Advertising as a molder of thought, opinion and values

• Critique of advertising
  • A study of Vance Packard
  • A study of Jean Kilbourne

3. FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT FOR MARKETING AND ADVERTIZING

• Costing of decision making
  • Costing classification and allocation
  • Nature of cost
  • Historical and future costs
  • Cost classification in manufacturing firms
  • Cost concepts for planning and control (relevant costs)
• Cost-volume profit analysis and operating leverage
  • Break-even analysis
  • Operative leverage
  • Use of cost-volume-profit for decision-making
• Profit Planning: A Budgetary approach
  • Meaning and purpose of budgeting
• Financial Management
  • Financial management and goals
  • Objectives
  • Functions and scope
  • Evolution
  • Interface with other functional area
• Time value of money
  • Why money has time value
  • Basic concepts
  • Risk and returns
• Fundamentals of capital budgeting
  • The capital budgeting process
  • Evaluation techniques
  • Net present value
  • Internal rate of return
• Financial statement analysis
  • P/L, A/c, B/s, vertical analysis
  • Radio analysis
  • Time series analysis
• Estimation of working capital needs
  • Objectives of working capital needs
  • Factors offering composition of working capital
  • Operating cycle approach to working capital
• Sources of long term finance
  • Equity capital
  • Preference capital
  • Debenture capital
  • Term loans
  • Deferred credit
  • Government subsidies
  • Leasing and hire purchases

4. AGENCY MANAGEMENT

• Objectives:
• To expose students to the business of advertising.
• To familiarize students with the different aspects of running an ad agency.
  • 1. Account management : Structure of an ad agency, functions of different departments, types of ad agency
  • Role of account planning
  • Account planning systems
  • Attributes of a good Account Planner
• 2. Client servicing
  • Characteristics of services
  • 7 P’s of services
  • Gap Model
  • Stages in client-agency relationship
  • Issues in client servicing
  • Understanding the clients business, key success factors, business mode
  • Key success factors
  • Business model
  • Understanding client behavior
  • Understanding communication tasks
  • Conflict resolution accountability
  • Negotiation process
• 3. Marketing plan of the client
  • Understanding client’s marketing strategy
  • Outlining Marketing problem/opportunity
  • Marketing objectives as stated by the client
    • Profit objective
    • Sales and market share objective
    • Setting advertising objective
  • STP
  • Constraints on strategy formulation and implementation
  • Setting evaluation criteria
• 4. Agency Finances
  • Sources of income
  • Expenditure heads of an agency
  • Modern systems of financial planning followed by leading agency
• Setting objectives
  • Profit objectives
  • Sales and market share objectives
  • Setting the overall advertising and promotion budget
  • Setting evaluation criteria
• 5. Client’s evaluation of the agency
• Areas of evaluation
  • Expertise
  • Objectivity
  • Dedication
  • Staffing and Management
• 6. Setting up an Agency
  • Nature of agency business
  • Stages in setting up a new business
    • Concept development
    • Environmental scanning
    • Market feasibility
    • Financial feasibility
    • Making a business plan
  • 7. Growing the Agency
    • Agency Business Management
    • New Business Development
      • CRM ( Customer relationship management)
      • Digital advertising
    • Growth with existing clients
    • Growth with new clients
    • Speculative Pitches
  • 8. Sales Promotion Management
    • Importance and role in marketing
    • Promotional objectives
    • Profit objectives
    • Market share objectives
    • Trade, retail and consumer promotion
    • Consumer Franchise-building versus Non franchise-Building Promotion
    • Consumer Sales Promotion tools
      • POP materials
      • Samples
      • Coupons
      • Trade promotions
      • Rebates
      • Premiums
      • Combination offers
      • Contests
      • Sweepstakes
      • games
    • Trade Sales Promotion tools
      • POP
      • Trade Allowances
      • Sales training program
      • Sales shows
      • Sponsorships and Event Marketing
    • Measuring the effectiveness of Promotional Tools

    5. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DIRECT MARKETING

    • Definition and importance of direct marketing
    • Economics of direct marketing
    • Increasingly important role in IMC mix
    • Understanding the DM business
      • Database marketing
      • Relationship marketing
      • Interactive marketing
      • How does marketing vary from other form of marketing
      • Strengths of direct marketing
      • Weakness of direct marketing
      • Stand-alone marketing channel or part of a multi-media strategy
      • Relationship to the total marketing mix
    • Direct marketing strategies
      • Customer level databases and lists and how they are used to profile, segment and prospect (for new) customers
      • Sources and uses of/for ‘electronic’ data
      • Database marketing on the internet
      • Setting up a database for database marketing
      • Steps in developing a database
      • Managing the database
      • Creating for DM making the message personnel
    • Direct marketing concepts
      • Lifetime value of the customer (LVC)
      • List selection, prospecting
      • Market segmentation
      • Mail order, lead generation, circulation, relationship/loyalty programs, store traffic/site traffic generations
      • Fund raising, pre-selling (cross selling as well as selling-up) and post selling
    • Various direct marketing methods and media
      • Person to person selling
      • Group selling
      • Direct mail
      • Direct response television
      • Direct response print advertising
      • Catalogs
      • Internet
      • Telemarketing
      • Inserts
      • Videos
      • E-mail
      • Trade shows
      • How traditional media support direct marketing efforts
      • Public relations
    • Future of direct marketing
      • Global direct marketing: the current state and future
      • Barriers preventing more extensive use of database marketing, ethical in DM
    • Consumer’s relationship management
      • The importance of CRM
      • Studying the customer mix and managing the key customers

    6. CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

    • Environmental issues
      • World without borders
      • Global warming, economic and environmental impact
      • Resource use and sustainability
      • Environmental degradation, ozone depletion, pollution, deforestation
    • Universal human Rights- Universal Declaration(1949);Declaration of the right to development(1986);Examining the concept of ‘universal’ human rights and the individual context
    • Self-determination- Issues of secession; issues of state and antistate violence
    • Population, consumption and sustainability
    • Emancipatory movements
      • Trade union
      • Peasants movements (with global vision)
      • Environmental movements Chipko; Rachel Carson’s silent spirit; `72-UN summit on environment
      • Women’s movement
      • Homosexual rights
      • The development debate, anti large dam movements, rehabilitation, development choices, people’s involvement
      • Tribal movements
    • State of Polity
      • Decline of law
      • Corruption
      • Nexus between crime and politics
      • Political apathy
      • Authoritarianism by democratic governments
    • Positive discriminations and reservations
    • Communalism
    • Issues of accountability
      • Corporate Bhopal gas tragedy
      • Government accountability