Contemporary issues

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Contemporary Issues Syllabus
I) Ecological system and Economics of Environmental Protection
(a) Climate Change:
1) HIPPO Effect
2) Ozone Depletion
3) Pollution
4) Deforestation, Desertification and Dereliction
5) Global Warming – Carbon Credits
6) Coastal Regulatory Zone (CRZ)
(b) Renewable and Non-renewable resources
Consumption and Sustainable Development
(c) Environmental Movements and Summits
Initiatives by Government and Private Organisations
(With relevant case studies on the above issue (such as Sunderbans, Maldives, Artic Region etc.)
II) 1) Concepts of Human Rights and Civil Liberties
(a) Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Summits
(b) CRC and CEDAW
(c) DRD (Declaration for the Right to Development)
2) Human Concerns and Legislative Measures in the Indian Context
(a) Education
(b) Health
(c) Women
(d) Children
(e) Gays
3) Political Rights:
(a) Rule of Law: Police Reforms
(b) Corruption and Politicisation of Crime
4) Accountability – Government and Corporate Accountability
(Relevant Case Studies)

III) Regional Issues – Economic, Social, Political
An Introduction to Maharashtra Economy – chief agriculture patterns, nature and extent of Industrial Growth with specific reference to MIDC and SEZ, Co-operative Banks Movement, the Textile Industry

Economic Movements:
Introduction to Sugar, Milk and Cotton Co-operatives, Peasant and Workers Party, Shetkari Dindi of Sharad Pawar, Sharad Joshi’s Shetkari Sanghatana, the Trade Union Movement with special reference to Mumbai Textiles and Engineering Industry, SSKKMS (Sho**** Shetkari Kashtakari Kamgar Mukti Sanghatana)

IV)
• Sugar Lobby, Operation Flood
• Self-determination, secession
• Migration and Displacement, Resettlement and Identity Vision
• Terrorism, Tribal Movement, Naxalism











HIPPO EFFECT
Hippo Effect refers to
 H Habitat destruction
 I Invasive Species
 P Pollution
 P Population
 O Over grazing
Habitat Destruction : Habit Destruction is the process by which natural habitat is destroyed making it unable to support species. In the process the species which used the site are displaced or destroyed and made extinct. 89% of bird species, 83% of mammals and 91% of plant species have become extinct due to habitat destruction. Habitat destruction has been mainly caused by human activities, such as agricultural, mining , harvesting, deforesting, rapid industrialization and the so on. habitat destruction is ranked as the most important casue of extinction of species.
Invasive Species: Invasive species are newly entering species which may cause the disappearance of native species through altered biotic interactions. Invasive species are non- native plants or animals that adversely affect the habitats of native species. These species are widely distributed in all kinds of ecosystems or habitat . Invasive Species significantly disturbs the natural biodiversity.
The alien or invasive species may kill or eat the native species to the degree of extinction. Introduction of goats and rabbits in pacific and Indian region has resulted in the destruction of habitats of several plants. Pathogenic micro organisms if introduced to new virgin areas may cause epidemics resulting in total elimination of native species.
Rabbits were introduced in Australia for sport shooting. Their population exploded and they destroyed vast area of rangeland, native wildlife and land used for sheep ranching
Pollution: Environmental pollution is the most subtle form of habitat destruction leading to loss of biodiversity. Pollution can cause reduction and elimination of sensitive species. Excessive use of pesticides, get mixed with the water of the aquatic ecosystem reducing the population of fish eating birds and falcons. Toxic wastes entering the fresh water bodies, coastal ecosystems are injurious to the biotic components of these systems. Coral reefs are in danger by pollution and industrialization. Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen dioxide, Suspended particles cause negative effect on plants and animal species.
Population: Increase in human population and human activities are chiefly responsible for destruction of biodiversity. The ever increasing human settlement have been causing destruction of natural ecosystem to meet their demands for food, clothing and shelter. Millions of forests have been cleared, along with grass lands. Worst damage has been done to wet lands as they were considered to be useless in the ecosystems. Today the rich biodiversity of wetlands, estuaries and mangroves with unique species are under threat. As a result of human activities, marine biodiversity is also under serious threat.
Overharvesting: Forest lands are cleared to convert it to grazing land for cattle. Overgrazing leads to degradation. India has a large population but grazing land is limited to only 13 million hectares. The animals trample the seedlings and cause compaction to the soil so that its water storing capacity is decreased. Food has been the most priority for humans. Most of the nutrients are used up by Overharvesting and overgrazing.
OZONE DEPLETION:
The earth’s atmosphere is composed of several layers. The layer, stratosphere occurs between 10-40 km above the earth’s surface. It absorbs the UV radiation in sunlight which is harmful to living organisms . It contains ozone, a form of oxygen ( O3 ) . Ozone is a life savior if present in the stratosphere but a pollutant if present in our troposphere. When the UV radiation hits the ozone molecule, it breaks the chemical bond and splits the molecule . the UV rays then lose their strength and are prevented from penetrating the earth’s atmosphere. The ozone layer thus protects the Earth from the ultraviolet rays sent down by the sun. If the ozone layer is depleted by human action, it can have adverse effect on the planet.
OZONE Depletion was first discovered in the mid-1980s in Antarctica. . Scientists noticed a decrease in ozone level in the stratosphere, which caused a massive hole in the ozone layer right above Antarctica . The discovery of this “hole” would mean more UV rays of sun reaching the earth . It could cause skin cancer, affect human immune system and crop growth, Ozone at the lower level is responsible for the urban smog but in the upper atmosphere absorbs UV radiation from the sun preventing it from reaching the earth where it could cause harm to humans, crops and other problems
Ozone depletion is expected to touch 10% by the middle of the century
Causes of Ozone depletion: & Effects
The most leading cause of ozone depletion is the production and emission of CFCs, chlorofluorocarbons. CFCs are used in industry in a variety of ways and have been amazingly useful in many products. Discovered in the 1930s CFCs came to be used in refrigerators, aerosols, home insulation, plastic foam, and throwaway food containers.
Accumulation of CFC’s in the atmosphere could destroy the protective layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere . CFCs float to the upper atmosphere where the suns heat breaks them releasing chlorine atoms. Chlorine destroys ozone . With more and more CFC use, chlorine level in atmosphere is double the natural levels. The worst contributors of CFC’s are refrigerators, aerosol cans . CFC’s act as greenhouse gases
Researchers in 1974, proved that CFCs were entering the atmosphere, and they concluded that 99% of all CFC molecules would end up in the stratosphere. Only in 1984, when the ozone layer hole was discovered over Antarctica, it was convincingly proved that CFC caused ozone depletion.
Ozone depletion will cause climate change , change in wind pattern , and exposure to UV light will cause skin cancer, cataracts, change in life cycle of plants disrupting the food chain.
Solution :
Many countries have called for the end of CFC production because only a few produce the chemical. However, those industries that do use CFCs do not want to discontinue usage of this highly valuable industrial chemical.
Despite the difficulties, international action has been taken to limit CFCs. In 1987, the first global agreement to limit the production of ozone depleting CFC’s was signed in Montreal. 30 nations worldwide agreed to reduce usage of CFCs and encouraged other countries to do so as well.
However, many environmentalists felt the treaty did "too little, too late", The treaty asked for CFC makers to only eliminate half of their CFC production, making some people feel it was inadequate.
By the year 2000, the US and twelve nations in Europe agreed to ban all use and production of CFCs. Many other countries have signed treaties and written laws restricting the use of CFCs. In 2002 the European Union introduced legislation aimed at safe disposal of ozone depletion substances in fridge and other equipment.
Can Ozone depletion be reversed? - Even if CFCs were banned, problems would remain. There would still be no way to remove the CFCs that are now present in the environment. Clearly though, something must be done to limit this international problem in the future. The abundance of ozone depleting compounds in the lower atmosphere is now slowly declining.
Companies are finding substitutes for CFCs, and people in general are becoming more aware of the dangers of ozone depletion.
POLLUTION
Pollution is undesirable change in the physical , chemical and biological characteristics of air, water, and soil. It is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, harm or damage to the ecosystem . Pollution can be due to natural phenomena like volcanic actions, forest fires, floods etc or it can be due to human activities like vehicular pollution, oil spills, excessive use of plastics, factory effluents etc. Pollution can be bio-degradable or non-biodegradable(i.e Non-decomposable)
There are different types of pollutions
1. Air Pollution – is the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Air pollution comes both from natural source and human activities. Globally however, man made pollutants from combustion, construction , mining, agriculture and warfare are significantly important .

 One of the leading causes of air pollution is motor vehicle emission. US , China, Russia, Mexico , Japan are world leaders in air pollution
 Increased use of fossil fuels cause increase in CO2 level in atmosphere. Rising atmospheric levels of Carbon dioxide and other green house gases cause global warming .
 Other pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, large livestock farms , PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides
2. Water pollution,- caused by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface runoff into river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills, oil leaks , wastewater discharges and littering.
3. Soil contamination - occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
4. Noise pollution,- Roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise
5. Radioactive contamination - nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment.
6. Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
Pollution exists in our environment for a long time. The industrial revolution gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to air pollution.
Pollution started becoming an environment issue with more and more industrial wastes and harmful chemicals being dumped into our water system , poor management of solid waste and air pollution through various human activities.
Effects of pollution on plant and animal life
 Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans.
 Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries.
 Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes.
 Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance.
 Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms.
 Older people are majorly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are under additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk.
 Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as birth defects.
Effects of pollution on environment
Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effects of this:
• Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification,
• The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in many ways.
Growing evidence of global pollution and public education and awareness have given rise to a number of environmental movements to check pollution. Environmental education, mass communication , strict laws and efficient management of environmental pollution is very essential.
DEFORESTATION:
Deforestation is cutting down of trees or removal of forests where the land is converted to a non-forest use. It is the destruction of forest. Example of deforestation includes conversion of forestland to agriculture or urban use. Deforestation refers only to removal of trees without the intention of reforesting it.
Deforestation occurs for many reasons :
 Increase in population results in demand for more and more land for both agriculture and other uses. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% deforestation, commercial agriculture 32%, logging 14% and fuel wood 5%.
Shifting cultivation is a more specific cause of deforestation. 50% in S.E Asia including India practice this type of agriculture. Some forest land is cleared , cultivated for 2 or 3 seasons. The abandoned forest patches may revert back to forest but due to population pressure it is not allowed to revert back,.
 Demand for fuel wood: 1.5 billion people depend upon wood for fuel for their cooking needs and energy. Industrial demand for wood has also considerably increased with growing population and urbanization.
 Development projects : A lot of forest land is cleared for construction dams, Reservoirs, Hydro electric projects , highways, Roads, rails etc.
 Overgrazing; Forest lands are cleared to convert them into grazing land for livestock
 Quarrying and mining operations: In India large forest lands are cleared and made barren as a result of quarrying and mining.
 Forest fires
Environmental effect of Deforestation:
 Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is often cited as one of the major causes of the increased greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions.
 Although Deforestation may not significantly affect the net oxygen level the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land, releases large amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming.
 Deforestation affects soil cohesion : can cause floods , land slide and soil erosion
 Forests are habitats for wild life. Deforestation threatens many wild life species causing loss of biodiversity and mass extinction of wild life
 Deforestation affects the water cycle. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer evaporate away this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture.
The solution lies in
 Reforestation
 Legislation to stop cutting trees
 Wildlife Sanctuaries
 Managing Cities, curtailing expansions at the cost of forest land
 Another initiative is to reduce emissions from the tropical deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
DESERTIFICATION:
Desertification refers to the land degradation in arid, semi-arid areas caused by climatic changes and human activities. It is the combined effect of accelerated erosion ( wind and water) woodland destruction, soil water logging, overgrazing in dry land.
Desertification became well known in the 1930's, when parts of the Great Plains in the United States turned into the "Dust Bowl" as a result of drought and poor practices in farming, although the term itself was not used until almost 1950.
Desertification occurs slowly but covers large areas as different degraded lands start merging . As a result of desertification, the productive potential of arid and semi-arid lands fall by 10% or more. Desertification results in conversion of irrigated lands to become deserted. It results in loss of vegetation cover, loss of ground water and severe soil erosion.
Causes of desertification are many. The amount of evaporation of moisture is greater than the rainfall. The low humidity allows 90% of solar energy to penetrate in the atmosphere and heat the earth resulting in high temperatures. Dust storms erode the soil as it is not unprotected by vegetation.
Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some areas, nomads moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate of erosion of the land. Nomads are trying to escape the desert, but because of their land-use practices, they are bringing the desert with them.
Other causes of desertification are deforestation, overgrazing , climatic factors, over exploitation of land for short term gain etc.
The effects of desertification are visible all over the world especially Asia, Africa, , parts of South and Central America, Australia and along the Mediterranean. In the World Atlas of Desertification, 1475 million hectares of land is shown to be in Asia in which India figures prominently.
In the last 50 years human activities have been a major cause of desertification of the land area of about 900 hectares . If sincere efforts are not made, 63% of range lands, 60% of rain fed crop land, and 30% of irrigated cropland will suffer from desertification . Even land occupied by human population will be affected. Desertification has affected 33% of earth’s surface and over a billion people. It is one of the world’s most alarming process of environmental degradation.
In the last 25 years, satellites have begun to provide the global monitoring necessary for improving our understanding of desertification. But a lot more is necessary to stop desertification.
To prevent desertification it is necessary to prevent soil erosion , improve water resource management, sustained vegetation , afforestation and reforestation, wind breaks and shelter breaks for live plants.


DERELICTION :
Dereliction means conscious and willful neglect. Various human activities create various environmental problems resulting in the imbalance in the eco system – an undesirable change in the characteristics of air, water and soil. .
We neglect to protect the environment willfully introducing pollutants.
 We dump solid wastes ( industrial, domestic, sewage, agricultural) , liquid wastes , gaseous wastes and radioactive wastes etc
 Air gets polluted by burning fuels, coal, petroleum , emission from vehicles etc All industries that produce chemicals release effluent gases into the atmosphere causing pollution. Air pollution affects human health, plants, animals , climate and causes acid rain and also damage of monuments. Air pollution can be controlled by
o Use of purified petrol
o Modernizing industries
o Installing air treatment plants
o Using alternative energy source
o Treating emissions
 Water pollution is caused by effluents from industries, dumping of wastes, domestic and industrial, use of fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides etc. it can be controlled by
o Proper water treatment measures to remove contaminants
o Controlled of pesticides and other chemicals

 Solid pollutants due to man’s activities are industrial wastes, solid waste from home and commercial places, radioactive waste, detergents, pesticides agrochemicals , herbicides,etc. Soil pollution decreases soil fertility and makes it inhabitable for plants and animals.
GLOBAL WARMING - CARBON CREDIT
The world climate is changing. Temperatures are rising and so are natural disasters. All this is the result of global warming due to the excessive accumulation of green house gases in the atmosphere.
There has been almost 40% increase in Carbon dioxide levels since the Industrial revolution. The earth is losing its ability to soak up billions of tons of CO2 each year. If more of our carbon pollution stays in the atmosphere, emissions will have to be cut much more to prevent global warming reaching a dangerous level.
The recent surge in CO2 level is due to
o Growth in the world economy
o Heavy use of Coal in China
o Weakening of natural ‘Sinks”– forests, seas and soil that can absorb carbon,
Carbon credit:
The UN adopted the UNFCCC ( UN Framework Convention of Climate change) in 1992 to address this issue of increase in CO2 emission.
The industrialized nations agreed to a non-building commitment to bring down emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases to 1990 levels. However most failed in their commitment. This was followed by the Kyoto protocol 1997 , an international treaty to reduce greenhouse gases. As of September 2005, a total of 156 countries have ratified the agreement . Developing countries like India, China and Brazil do not have any obligations of this Protocol beyond monitoring and reporting emission
What is Carbon Credit:
Countries are given fixed limits for emission of CO2. This emission permission is known as Carbon Credit. Supposing a country emitted 100 carbon-equivalent green house gases, it has to reduce its emission level by 52 carbon equivalent greenhouse gases. This means the country has 48 units of carbon credit in its possession. Countries can trade in carbon credit. If the above country has reduced its emission by more than 52 units , it can exchange/sell this excess carbon units to another country which has exceeded its emission limit. Carbon credits have a monetary value and can be exchanged or bought and sold in international market at the prevailing market price. A tonne of carbon credit is sold at Euro 12-15
As the Kyoto Protocol permits carbon credits, a number of exchanges have been made and Banks too have entered this lucrative market. Such banks are known as Carbon Banks.
Carbon Credit provides a way to reduce green house emissions. India has generated approximately 30 Million carbon credits and approximately 140 million in run, the second highest transacted volumes in the world. India’s carbon market is growing faster. 850 projects with a huge investment of Rs 650,000 million are in pipeline. The revenue from 200 projects is estimated at Rs. 97 billion till 2012.
India has been able to register approximately 350 projects spread across various sectors with major dominance of renewable energy, energy efficiency and biomass energy projects. Some examples are:
 The government has already energy conservation norms for commercial buildings
 It has launched CFL lamps to reduce energy consumption by 60% . Himachal Pradesh has given one CFL free to each household.. Delhi provides subsidy on CFL’s sold in the city
 In Uttarkhand, Rajaiv singh and friends have planted thousands of trees and have turned barren mountains into green belt – it helped the government earn valuable carbon credit
 Trees have been planted on Yamuna belt
Delhi Metro Rail have already claimed over 40000 carbon credits for using innovative braking systems.
RENEWABLE ENERGY - NON CONVENTIONAL SOURCE OF ENERGY
Fossil fuels are non-renewable i.e they draw on finite resources that will eventually dwindle, becoming too expensive or too environmentally damaging. On the contrary renewable sources of energy like Wind and solar energy are constantly replenished and will never run out.
Importance of Renewable Energy
 Clean sources of energy and have a lower environmental impact than conventional energy
 It is energy for the future. Renewable sources will not run out
 Most renewable energy investments are spent on materials and infra structure rather than costly energy imports
 Energy Security – It helps to decrease depends on foreign oil supplies
Some of the renewable sources of energy are solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, ocean energy, biomass, Hydrogen etc.
a. Wind Energy :
Wind energy is a clean and renewable source of electric power and is the world’s fastest growing energy source. For hundreds of years we have been using wind energy for pumping water or grinding grains. Modern wind turbines (like windmills) can generate electricity. The wind turbines can be used as stand alone applications which are typically used for water pumping or communications. Or they can be connected to a utility power grid or connected to solar cell system.
For utility scale sources of wind energy, a large number of wind turbines are built close together to form a wind plant. Several electricity providers today use wind plants to supply power to their customers
India has made considerable progress in utilizing wind energy - We have the world’s largest wind resource assessment program, and expansion of the resources base. Large private and public sector units are being motivated to set up wind power projects.
India now has the 5th largest wind power installed capacity in the world – 1870 MW
b. Energy from the Ocean:
Ocean can produce thermal energy from the sun’s heat and mechanical energy from the tides and waves. Oceans cover more than 70% of earth’s surface and are the world’s largest solar collectors. The sun’s heat heats up the ocean surface more than the deep ocean water . the temperature difference creates thermal energy. This can be used for many applications including electricity generation.
 Closed cycle system ; Ocean’s warm surface water is used to vaporize a low boiling fluid like ammonia, The vapors expand and turn a turbine which activates a generator to produce electricity
 Open system – Actually boils the surface water by operating at low pressures to produce steam that drives a turbine and generator
Mechanical energy from ocean is generated by tides and waves activity . Tides are driven by gravitational pull of the moon and waves are driven by wind. As a result tides and wives are intermittent sources of energy. A dam is usually used to convert tidal energy into electrical energy by forcing the water through turbines . For wave energy, there are different systems.
Ocean thermal energy conversion have many uses –to generate electricity , desalinate water, and various other industrial applications . I
c Geo Thermal energy
Geo thermal energy comes from the natural heat of the earth. This heat is stored in rock and water within the earth and can be extracted by drilling wells . This energy can be used for heating purposes , district heating , horticulture and recreational uses such as spas. It can also be used for electricity production. Geo thermal power plants use steam produced from hot water found below the earth’s surface .
d. Solar energy:
Solar energy can be directly used for heating and lighting homes, for generating electricity , solar cooking, and a variety of industrial uses.
 Solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity . Solar cells are used to power calculator and watches.
 New Power plants use solar power systems- solar energy is used to generate steam which rotates a large turbine that activates a generator that produced electricity.
 Solar hot water – Sunlight can be used to heat water used in buildings and swimming pools. The solar heating system for buildings have a solar collector where the solar heat is absorbed and the water is heated. The storage tank holds the hot water.
 India has a potential for 35 MW per Sq Km solar thermal power generation. A 140MW solar power project is being set up at Mathania near Jodhpur in Rajasthan . It is the first of its kind and among the largest such projects in the world.
e Biomass Energy:
All organic matter is known as biomass and the energy released from biomass when eaten or burnt or converted into fuels is called Biomass Energy. Biomass can be broken down by anaerobic digestion using bacteria in oxygen free atmosphere that produces biogas containing methane . Biogas can be used to generate heat/electricity Biomass can also be used to produce heat and /or electricity by combustion.
Biomass includes straws, stalks, stems, agro industrial products residues like shells, husks, forestry residues etc.
Biomass power/co-generation programs are used in sugar mills, paper mills and rice mills where biomass resources are generated or consumed in their main production processes.
Use of Biomass energy as an alternate source of energy is being encouraged through favorable government policies . India has the largest cogeneration program in the sugar mills . the sugar mills has an established potential of 3500MW of power generation using bagasse
f Small hydropower program
It refers to hydro energy plants producing less than 10 MW electricity. Hydro power is produced by movement of water streams, rising and fall of tides , wave energy . This is a major thrust area in our program for non conventional source of energy. It is recognized that small hydro power plants have a critical role in improving the overall energy scenario of the country and specially for remote areas. It has an estimated potential of 15000 MW . There are over 8 manufacturers in the country in this field,
g Hydrogen as the Future Fuel
Hydrogen is available only in combined form – in water and hydrocarbons and many organic compounds. Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons through the application of heat. Electrical current can be sued to separate hydrogen from water. Some algae and bacteria using sunlight, can give out hydrogen under certain conditions.
Hydrogen is high in energy and does not produce pollutants when burnt. Space shuttles use hydrogen . In future hydrogen can be used as energy carrier like electricity.
Renewable sources of energy are fast becoming important to contributing to the economy of the country . Effort is on and but there is a greater potential for this development . Equally important is energy efficiency – using less energy to accomplish the same task. Less energy also means less pollution
10 . NON RENEWABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY:
It includes fossil fuels, including petroleum products, coal, natural gas and nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is mainly obtained from nuclear fission of radioactive materials like uranium and thorium. The global resources of fossil fuels , uranium and thorium are limited and eventually be depleted. Use of fossil fuels has negative impact on environment such as air pollution, global warming and acid rains. Thus it has become necessary to restrict the use of fossil fuels and replace them with renewable sources.
Natural gas is the cleanest source among fossil fuels. It can be easily transported through pipelines. It burns without smoke and can be used for domestic and industrial purposes. It can also be used for power generation and as a raw material for petrochemical industries and fertilizer plants.
Nuclear energy has a tremendous potential but any leakage may cause devastating nuclear pollution . eg. the world’s worst Chernobyl disaster. Disposal of nuclear waste is also a problem.
Man has over exploited natural resources to serve his primary need as well as his comfort needs. The continued and careless use of these resources will result in degradation of these resources. It has therefore become necessary to use these natural resources in such a way that they can be saved for future use and are not lost. Both management and conservation are important as some of the natural resources are getting depleted very fast.
11. CONSUMPTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Population, consumption, environment
The impact of humans on the environment is related to the population, the per capita consumption and the environmental damage caused by the technology used to produce what is consumed. With the rise in population, there is a pressure on economic development and a rise in income level could result in increased consumption . A major aspect of economic growth is industrialization and agriculture. There is high consumption of resources like land, water, minerals, energy etc. This leads to environmental problems.
Economic growth without harming environment is impossible. The impact of population growth and consumption has already caused severe ecological damage and imbalance . Also there are many threats to human health, such as emergence of infectious diseases and antibiotic resistance to medication etc. Some pointers to this are:
 Approximately 2 billion of 6 billion inhabiting the world today are mal nourished. . Ensuring that people are fed directly depends upon the agricultural productivity which again relies upon availability of land, energy and water resources as well as bio diversity
 Increase in soil erosion is a great threat to productivity . About 30% of world’s arable land is lost due to soil erosion
 Use of fossil fuel is on the rise. . As population grows, energy needs also increase . Once these non-renewable source of energy is spent, they are gone for good .
 Water quality and quantity are also under threat due to population growth. Non availability of fresh drinking water causes an estimated 4 million deaths annually mainly of children, .
Population – Consumption Trends
One important cause of environmental destruction is inequitable consumption of resources , Over population in 3rd world countries is often cited as
the root cause of environmental degradation . However an average American consumes 40 times more resources than an Average Somalian. Similarly the richest 5% of Indian society probably cause more ecological damage than the poorest 25%. There is a vast gap between the poor and the rich . Once there is a balance between both, sustainable pattern of consumption and economic growth will go hand in hand.
The co relation between population, consumption and environmental degradation can be due to various factors
1. If the purpose of life is to carry on the family name through larger family then the consumption patterns are different
2. Process of liberalization has only intensified the environmental crisis. It has resulted in free for all atmosphere with industries increasingly ignoring environmental standards and state governments sacrificing natural habitats to make way for industries
3. The drive towards growth through export is rapidly depleting natural resources
4. Pressure on Reducing government expenditures results in cuts in social and environmental projects
5. Opening up the economy in bringing in companies with a notorious track record on environment and wasteful consumer goods and toxins
6. Educating people about family planning and environmental problems
Sustainable Development
In this context , what we need is sustainable development . The goal is to achieve economic growth in such a way that there is reasonable and equitable distribution of the benefits and economic well-being , not only for the present but also for generations to come. It is maintaining a balance between exploitation and conservation.
Sustainable Development is
“the pattern of social and economic development which optimizes the societal benefits available in the present, without compromising on the likely potential for similar benefits in the future”
Solution:
Sustainable development would mean undertaking developmental activities and projects which would work closely in harmony with nature and without disrupting local social system now and in future. In order to be sustainable, the development has to improve the well being of societies, enable everyone to participate in the developmental process and the benefits of development should be shared by all the people . Besides, these improvements will have to be extended to the future generation as well over many generations. Some actions recommended are
• Government policies to reduce population growth, provision of health care
• Reducing consumption per person
• Reducing pollution, cleaner technologies, less waste, waste disposal , eco-labelling
• Government measures for Energy conservation and preservation of natural resources
• Education on population control and environmental protection
• Reducing poverty and social instability
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS & SUMMITS
Our environment is facing grave dangers today due to several reasons and threats. Most of the threat is caused by indiscriminate exploitation of the natural sources and a host of human activities. One of the main challenges today is to integrate economic considerations with social responsibility, and environmental protection for global sustainability. Global sustainability here refers to optimum utilization of scarce resources to fulfil the needs of the present generation in such a way that it does not compromise on the needs of future generation.
Some of the Global environmental challenges we are facing today are Climate change and global warming, Population explosion, industrial pollution, ozone depletion , deforestation, environmental mismanagement and so on. The natural resources upon which people depend for sustainable development are being degraded, depleted and misused in many parts of the developing world.
World over people have realized that something must be done to stop this environmental degradation if man has to survive. Public awareness is on the increase and there are many efforts, national and international to save the environment and to manage it in such a way that there will be sustainable development. Public interest in environmental issues was inspired largely by 3 books published in the 1970’s - . Silent Spring, The Population Bomb and the Closing Circle. Silent spring made people aware of the dangers of over use of pesticides on birds and wildlife. The Population Bomb alerted people to dangers posed by rapidly increasingly population on natural resources and the Closing circle explained the ecological Cycle in easy terms. Worldwide a number of environment movements have started and are working towards saving the environment .
There are government organizations, inter governmental organizations and private organizations that monitor or preserve the environment in different ways. These organizations and environmental movements are working towards reversing the process.
A GOVERNMENTAL & INTER GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

1. Inter governmental Organisation - UNEP – United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

In 1972, the UN established a separate program known as the UNEP ( United Nations Environment Program) . UNEP provides leadership and encourages partnership in caring for the environment Its Head quarters is at Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP coordinates the UN environmental activities. Its activities cover a wide range of environmental issues - atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems , the promotion of environmental science and information, early warning and guidance in dealing with the environmental disaster and emergencies

i.1972 Stockholm Summit : .In 1972, at Stockholm, the UN had its first “Earth Summit”. The 1972 Stockholm conference focused international attention on environmental issues , specially to related to environmental degradation. It highlighted the fact that pollution does not recognize geographical boundaries but affects the whole world. The Earth Summit produced an action plan which laid out clearly the educational, informational, social and cultural aspects of environmental issues

 To provide countries the necessary technical and financial assistance
 Preparing national report on environment, monitoring environmental development
 Support and encourage projects for social, educational and cultural programs
 To encourage exchange of information on methods and work in progress
 To establish a common methodology for assessing environmental development and preparing reports

ii. 1992 Rio DE Janeiro Conference – (UNCED – UN conference on Environment and Development )

172 governments participated and some 2400 representatives of NGO’s attended the 1992 conference. The conference outlined the way the various social economic and environmental factors are interdependent and change together. The aim of the conference was to produce a new plan for international action on environmental and developmental issues .
The issues addressed included
• Systematic scrutiny of patterns pf production – particularly production of toxic components, such as lead in petrol, poisonous waste, radioactive chemicals etc
• Replacing fossil fuels with alternative fuels which are linked to climate change
• Reduce vehicular emissions, congestion in cities and health problems related to pollution
• Growing scarcity of water
An important achievement of the UNCED was an agreement on the Climate change Convention ( UNFCCC) which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol. Another agreement was not to carry out activities on the lands of indigenous people that would cause environmental damage. Other achievements were Agenda 21 , a thorough program of actions for global sustainable development and conventions on biological diversity
iii. Johannesburg Summit - 2002
Efforts to promote sustainable development received a major boost at the Johannesburg summit 2002 , the World summit on sustainable Development . The summit drew world’s attention to the challenges of improving the lives and conserving our resources .
The overriding theme of the Summit was to promote action. Issues and concerns of poverty and the environment were discussed and commitments were made to increase access to clean water and proper sanitation, to increase access to energy services, to improve health conditions and agriculture, particularly in drylands, and to better protect the world's biodiversity and ecosystems.
iv. Kyoto protocol
The world climate is changing. Temperatures are rising and so are natural disasters. All this is the result of global warming due to the excessive accumulation of green house gases in the atmosphere. The largest contributor to the problem is carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels, factories , cars and other sources.
The UN adopted the UNFCCC ( UN Framework Convention of Climate change) in 1992 to address this issue of increase in CO2 emission. Reducing greenhouse gases became the key to tackling global warming .
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions which causes global warming.
From December 1 -11, December 1997, more than 160 nations met in Kyoto, Japan to set targets on greenhouse gas emissions for developed nations. Developed nations agreed to limit their emissions relative to the levels emitted in 1990.
 December 1977 - The treaty was negotiated in Kyoto
 March 1998 – opened for signature
 March 1999 – closed for signature
 Nov 2004 – Russia ratified the treaty
 Feb 2005 – Treaty came into force.
As of September 2005, 156 countries have ratified the agreement . Notable exceptions are US and Australia

Objectives of the Protocol:

The Kyoto protocol aims to tackle global warming by setting targets for nations to reduce greenhouse gases emission worldwide. The protocol sets the emissions limits and reduction obligations with respect to CO2, methane, Nitrous oxide, Hydrofurocarbons, Perflurocarbons & Sulphur hexafluoride. Of these CO2 is the most important which is emitted by fossil fuels.

These targets vary between countries and regions but globally the initial target is to reduce to 5% percent below 1990 levels by 2012. The individual target ranges from 7 % for US, 8% for EU & others, 10% for Iceland.

Kyoto protocol provides “Carbon Credit “ . Countries are given fixed limits for emission of CO2. This emission permission is known as Carbon Credit. Supposing a country emitted 100 units of green house gases, it has to reduce its emission level by 52 units. This means the country has 48 units of carbon credit in its possession. Countries can trade in carbon credit. If the above country has reduced its emission by more than 52 units , it can exchange/sell this excess carbon units to another country which has exceeded its emission limit. Carbon credits have a monetary value and can be exchanged or bought and sold in international market at the prevailing market price. A tonne of carbon credit is sold at Euro 12-15
Eg Russia today easily meets its targets and can sell off its credits for millions fo dollars to other countries that don’t yet meet their targets.

Benefits:
 Reduced Rate of global warming
 Better climate and environmental conditions
 Better health conditions
 Long term economic benefit
 Flexibility in meeting emission targets
Drawbacks
 Limited participation
 Short term economic cost
 Rise in cost of living

India signed and ratified the protocol in August 2002 . Developing countries like India, China and Brazil do not have any obligations of this Protocol beyond monitoring and reporting emission. Since India is exempted from the framework of the treaty, it is expected to gain from the protocol in terms of transfer of techno logy and related foreign investments.

2. Governmental organizations - Environmental protection Agency – EPA ( USA)
The mission of EPA is to protect human health and protect environment – air, water and land. EPA provides leadership in the nations’ environmental science, research, education and assessment efforts. EPA works closely with other federal agencies, state and local governments and native American tribes to develop and enforce environmental laws. EPA is responsible for researching and setting national standards for a variety of environmental programs . Where national standards are not met EPA can issue sanctions and take other steps to assist the states and tribes in reaching the desired levels of environmental standard. The agency also works with industries and all levels of governments in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts

3. Non Governmental Organsiations (NGO”s) –

WWF World Wild Life was founded in 1961 . it is the world’s largest independent conservation organization with around 5 million supporters and a global network of 27 national organizations. WWF promotes public awareness of conservation problems and raises funds for protection of threatened species and environments.

Greenpeace : organizes public campaigns for
 Protection of oceans and ancient forests
 The phase out of fossil fuels
 Promotion of renewable energy
 Prevention of genetically modified organisms being released into nature
 End to nuclear threat, nuclear contamination
 Safe and sustainable trade
Greenpeace does not solicit or accept funds from government corporations or political parties. It relies on voluntary donations of individual supporters and on grant support from foundations . Green peace is committed to the principles of non-violence, political independence and internationalism . Greenpeace has been campaigning against environmental degradation since 1971 when a small boat of volunteers an journalists sailed to Alaska where the US was conducting nuclear tests

B. ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS , AWARENESS

1. Silent Spring - (Bringing public awareness)

Silent Spring is a book published in the US in the mid 1960’s warning people about the disastrous effects of pesticides and particularly DDT. It warned that indiscriminate use of the pesticide could kill hundreds of species of insects and harm human beings. The author Rachel Carson was an environmentalist .

DDT was the most powerful pesticide the world had ever known , was capable of killing hundreds of different kinds of insects at once.

The book describes how the pesticide enters the food chain and accumulates in fatty tissues of humans and animals and causes cancer and genetic disorders. It remains toxic even after it is diluted by rainwater. The book describes how a courageous woman took on the chemical industry and raised important questions about the impact of human activities on nature .

Silent Spring was named the most influential book in the last 50 years . The book challenged the widely accepted notion that man was destined to control nature. As a result of the book and its reception, the Environmental protection Agency was established in 1970. DDT and other pesticides have been completely banned in the US. Several birds including eagles were thus saved from extinction.

The main theme of silent Springs was Man as a part of nature has a duty to protect nature from destruction. The silent Spring launched the environmental movement world wide. Although there were critics who challenged her initially and launched a negative propaganda about the book, Silent Spring remained the best seller and world began to take note of what the book wanted to say.

2. Environment movements in India
Control over natural resources is an important reason for emergence of environmental movement in India. Some good examples of these kinds of movements are like Chipko and Narmada Bachao Andolan .
1. Chipko Movement
The Chipko Movement of the villagers was a movement to save trees from being cut by embracing them. The movement started in the Garhwal Himalaya in April 1973. The local people demanded the use of forest produce, but instead the government allowed outside contractors to fell trees. In protest, illiterate peasants, men, women and children- threatened to hug forest trees rather than allow them to be logged for export. Notably the peasants were not interested in saving the trees per se, but they were interested in using their produce for agricultural and household requirements. In later years, however the movement turned its attention to broader ecological concerns, and the collective protection and management of forest, .
The first Chipko action took place spontaneously in 1973 and over the next five years spread to many districts of the Himalaya in Uttar Pradesh. The movement shifted from demand for forest produce for local small industries to a new demand for ecological control of forest resources . They resisted to commercial felling and excessive tapping of resin from pine trees. They protested against forest auctions. The Chipko demand for declaration of Himalayan forests as protection forests and not for commercial exploitation was recognized by the government . The Chipko protests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-year ban on green felling in the Himalayan forests of that State .

A similar ban was later also implemented in the states of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh.
The movement spread to Himachal Pradesh in the north, Karnataka in the south, Rajasthan in the west, Bihar in the east and to the Vindhyans in central India. In addition to the ban in Uttar Pradesh, the movement succeeded in halting clear felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas, as well as generating pressure for a natural resources policy more sensitive to people's needs and environmental factors.

The Chipko Movement was the result of a number of initiatives .Its leaders and activists have primarily been village women, acting to save their means of subsistence and their communities. Men have been involved, too, however, and some of them have given wider leadership to the movement. One of the most prominent leaders has been Sunderlal Bahuguna, a Gandhian activist and philosopher, whose appeal to Mrs Gandhi resulted in the green-felling ban and whose 5,000-kilometre foot march in 1981-83 was crucial in spreading the Chipko message.
The Chipko movement, though primarily a livelihood movement rather than a forest conservation movement, went on to inspire many future environmentalists and , non-violent protests and movements the world over . It occurred at a time when there was hardly any environmental movement in the developing world, and its success meant that the world immediately took notice of this non-violent Tree hugging movement.
Chipko Movement inspired many such eco-groups, helped in slowing down the rapid deforestation, exposed vested interests, increased ecological awareness, and demonstrated the strength of people power. Above all, it stirred up existing civil society in India which started looking towards tribal, and marginalized people and their issues more seriously .
It has been made to appear that Chipko is against development . On the contrary, Chipko is for ecologically sound development and against unsustainable destructive economic growth. Chipko’s demand is conservation of not merely local forest resources but the entire life support system and human survival.
2. Narmada bachao andolan
Narmada Bachao Andolan is the most powerful mass movement started in 1985 against the construction of huge dam on the Narmada River. The proposed Sardar Sarovar Dam will displace more than 250000 people. The big fight is over the resettlement of these people.. The movement soon took the shape of an NGO that brought together the tribal, the farmers, the environmental activists and the human rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam.
Initially, the focus of the movement was on saving the trees and the forest that would be submerged under the water, if the dam would be constructed. Recently, the NBA included a focus on the issue of rehabilitation of the poor people living around the area and this to be facilitated by the government
The government and the authorities have their own interest in the project. This multi-core project will generate considerable revenue for the government. The project is expected to produce 1450 mega watts of electricity as well as supply pure drinking water to millions of people.
The protests do not seem to have achieved much. The construction of the some of these dams such as the Tawa Dam and the Bargi Dam are already complete.. Those protesting against further construction say that these construction will adversely affect the lives of human as well as the biodiversity as acres of agricultural as well as forests land will be taken away. Also it will displace thousands of people from their livelihood. These activists have been demanding that the government look at alternative means to meet the water and energy needs that are also ecologically beneficial or at least, do not harm the ecology.
Led by Medha Parker, NBA has now been turned into international protest gaining support from NGO’s all around the globe. There is large scale protest in media , hunger strikes, mass protest marches , rallies etc . The NBA movement has been pressurizing the World Bank to withdraw its loan from the project. Famous celebrity like Amir Khan made open support to the cause of NBA. The intensity of the movement has in fact thrown light on other similar issues as well.
In 1984, the supreme Court gave orders to stop the dam construction.
OR
NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN
• NBA is a people’s movement forward from local people’s movements in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
• Though peaceful means, the NBA has brought much media attention to the plight of the native people along the river. Medha Patkar is a prominent leader of the group.

Organization :-
• In 1985, Medha Patkar and others formed the Narmada Ghati Dharangrast Samiti in Maharashtra, working with some thirty-three tribal villages at risk from the Sardar Sarovar dam.
• They demanded proper rehabilitation and the right to be informed about which areas were to be submerged.
• There was also a Gandhian group called the Narmada Ghati Nav Nirman Samiti that worked in the villages of the Nimad plains in Madhya Pradesh.

Issue:-
• It involves construction of 30 large dams, 35 medium sized dams and 3000 small dams.
• It will submerge 900000 hectares of land, including 300000 hectares of forest land and 200000 hectares of farm land.
• Most of which are from Nimar – an ancient and a very fertile agricultural belt in the country
• In addition to these about 140000 peasants, are likely to be affected by the construction of canals etc., (the 75000 Km. long canal network alone will require about 73000 hectares of land).
• Several thousands of fishermen living downsteam will also be adversely affected
• It will submerge 245 villages (19 in Gujarat, 33 in Maharashtra, and 193 in Madhya Pradesh). It will result into displacement of over a lakh people, mostly tribals.
• The overwhelming majority of them are tribal people
• Most of them are dependent on primitive agriculture, gathering forest produce and grazing livestock in the forests. The degree of commcialization is very minimal. These people (mostly Bhils and Bhilalas) have waged an incessant struggle throughout history to retain hold over these forests and hills. This struggle has both shaped their identity and formed a strong attachment to their lands.
• Perhaps none understand the land and the forests, its potentials and products and methods of using them on a sustainable basis better than these people.
• The dam first threatens to submerge the forests, i.e., the home of the adivasis and when it reaches its full projected height will submerge the lands of the peasant villages further upstream.
• There have been suggestions for reducing the height of the dam so as to reduce the submergence area.
• But that might only save the peasant villages and whatever the height of the darn the adivasi settlements will be submerged
• Over a lakh of people, mostly tribals, being in the submergence area, were not adequately and properly resettled and rehabilitated.
• That environmental damages of constructing such huge dams would be huge
• Baba Amte and the noted writer Arundhati Roy, among others, became involved and associated with the NBA.
• Tactics:-
• The NBA organized mass public meetings, hunger strikes, rallies, and intellectual debates and thereby created environmental public awareness against the project. The matter was ultimately resolved by the intervention of the Supreme Court of India.
Role of Media
• The media has a tremendous influence in shaping public attitudes and beliefs, “The media in any democratic country play an important public service function by providing a platform for advocacy and for awareness generation.
• Issues such as the Narmada Bachao Andolan have remained in focus because the mass media continue to cover them prominently.
• Groups and their problems remain invisible beyond their immediate geographies unless they are talked about in the media.
• When the media take note, opinion makers take note, and they in turn influence communities and policy makers and implementers. “We need very strong advocacy effort to influence people to make changes, and advocacy cannot work without the support of the mass media.
• Three basic problems have hampered advocacy efforts in this grea
• General invisibility in the media
• Reporting without real understanding of the issues
• Stereotyping
• To chronicle the history of the resistance movement against the dams through press release, images, interviews, film, books, reports and other media By organizing art performances such as skits, plays, and dance dramas
• To record art including creative writing, poetry, painting and songs
• Books on Narmada Straggle:-
• In 1999, writer Arundhati Roy wrote a celebrated essay, “Greater Common Good” in which she brilliantly vivisects the politics behind the Sardar Sarovar Project.
The essay resulted in a great deal of discussion in the media
3. Silent Valley Movement :
It is a social movement aimed at the protection of Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest in Kerala. It was started in 1973 to save the Silent Valley Reserve forest from being flooded by a hydroelectric project. The Valley was declared as Silent Valley national Park in 1985.

4. Project Tiger:
India contains 60% of the world’s tigers. The tiger population in India, at the turn of the century, was estimated at 40,000. Subsequently, the first ever all India tiger census was conducted in 1972 which revealed the existence of only 1827 tigers. Various human activities in the last century had led to the disturbance of wildlife habitats. Serious concern was voiced about the threat to several species of wildlife and the shrinkage of habitats in the country. Till 1960 hunting and exporting of tiger skin was legal. In 1970, a national ban on tiger hunting was imposed and in 1972 the Wildlife Protection Act came into force. A 'Task Force' was then set up to formulate a project for tiger conservation with an ecological approach
The project was launched in 1973, and various tiger reserves were created in the country . Management plans were drawn up for each tiger reserve, .. Initially 9 tiger reserves were created. Now there are 27 reserves. The aim of the project is to stop poaching, to stop destruction of their habitats, provide them adequate food, and not to use them for entertainment like circus.
Mangroves movement:
Mangroves are indispensable part of the ecological system. They act as a natural shield and guard against natural calamities and disasters. They protect the coastline and prevent erosion. The areas with mangrove was less damaged by the 2004 tsunami than areas without mangroves .
Mangroves are various types of plants and shrubs that grow in saline coastal areas of tropical and sub-tropical regions. The specific regions where these plants occur are termed as mangrove ecosystem. These are highly productive but highly sensitive and fragile plants. They are important in maintaining the marine ecological balance. They also have tremendous economic value .
Mangrove forests are home to a large variety of commercially important fish, crab, shrimp and mollusks . Mangrove forests have been commercially exploited for pulp, wood and the bark is used in tanning industry, etc. .
Relentless clearing of mangrove has been going on to give way for industrialization. Environmentalists maintain that the major threat to mangroves arise from indiscriminate tree felling for food, fodder and timber and the thoughtless conversion of mangroves into aquacultural ponds along the coast. The local fishermen already are resisting it as it threatens their traditional livelihood. Mangrove destruction has reduced the fish catch since Mangrove cover is vital for fish to lay eggs. Other negative factors threatening mangroves include collection of fruits and discharge of industrial and domestic effluents. Mangroves are facing an overdose of chemical fertilizers and pesticides .

Significantly, the violent tidal storms that affect the low lying areas of Bangladesh around Chittagong, year after year, are traced to the unchecked and massive destruction of mangroves. .

In India 38 mangroves areas have been identified, of which Sunderbans in West Bengal are most prominent . Over the last two centuries, the Sunderbans have been exploited to make room for human settlement and expansion of farming activities. Between 1985-2000 India has lost about half of its mangroves. In 1987, the national committee on mangrove and Coral Reef launched a program of intensive conservation and management
CONCEPTS OF HUMAN RIGHTS & CIVIL LIBERTIES
1. UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights :
Human Rights are generally defined as those rights which are inherent in our nature and without which we cannot live as human beings. These are rights an individual possesses by virtue of being a human being .
Human rights are derived from the principles of natural law and have been identified as those rights that are important, moral and universal. Humans are born free and equal in dignity and right.
 Human rights allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence and talent.
 They also satisfy our spiritual and other needs
 It respects and protects basic dignity and human worth
 Respect for human rights is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
These rights are also called Fundamental Rights when guaranteed by a written constitution. Fundamental rights are legally enforceable. These rights are also called Basic rights or natural rights.
In our constitution food, clothing, shelter, employment , health, education and right against exploitation are not included as fundamental rights and some of these have been included in our Directive Principles but are not enforceable.
Evolution of Human Rights:
One finds the roots of human rights in ancient times and scriptures eg., Veda, the 10 commandments, Teachings of Buddhism .
Human rights originated from the idea of mercy, kindness, fairness and humanity. The ancient Greeks and Romans voiced human rights concerns through their “natural law “ theory.- Equality before law, equal respect for all, equal freedom of speech, the Right to vote , the right to justice, etc. Magna Carta, issued in 1215 dealt with the rights of different sections of the society and justice for all
Human rights came to focus with black slavery, American freedom Revolution, French Revolution. The middle and late 19th century saw a number of issues like child labor, slavery, brutal working conditions etc. At the end of the Second World war, the UN was formed to bring about world peace. The UN attempted to make human rights universal . In 1945 the UN made a general declaration that no one in the world can be discriminated against on the basis of race, religion, language or sex.
UDHR ( Universal Declaration of human Rights)
On 10th December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights “ . The UN has since then committed itself to the promotion and protection of human rights.
The UDHR consists of a Preamble and 30 articles covering civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. Yet in itself the declaration has no legal force. It is a set of moral rules and has found widespread acceptance .
Importance :
 Human rights are universal - binding for all member nations
 Serves as a common standard for all
 Makes violation an international concern
 Influenced constitution of many countries. – Fundamental Rights in our constitution is based on UDHR.
Classification
Human rights can be broadly classified into
1. The Right to Physical and Mental Integrity – The right to life, liberty, security, freedom from torture, cruel and inhuman treatment, freedom from slavery, forced labor, arbitrary arrest etc
2. Freedom of conscience and Action – Freedom of opinion, religion, expression, Freedom of information, freedom to form associations, trade unions, freedom of movement etc
3. Right to Legal justice – Fair trial in courts, the Right to defend
4. Privacy and Family Rights
5. Political Rights – The right to vote and stand in election
6. Economic and social rights- The right to work, adequate standard of living, social security, the right to health services
7. Equality and non-discrimination
Right to Development , was adopted by the UN in 1986.
2. RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT
Development refers to the comprehensive social, economic, cultural and political process which aims at the constant improvement of the well being of all the people on the basis of their active participation
The right to Development is an inalienable human right by which every individual and all people are entitled to participate in, contribute to , and enjoy social, economic, cultural and political development in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully satisfied.
The UN adopted the declaration on the right to Development in 1986. Every human being wants to develop, improve their standard of living and enhance quality of life. However, it is seen that only a section of society benefits from the development process and others remain deprived of the fruits of development and often become victims of it. i.e development of some takes place at the cost of others.
Now it is universally accepted that Right to Development is everybody’s right. Weaker sections of society like women, children and tribals have a higher claim over this right because their development is yet to take place. Similarly certain regions within a country are under developed as compared to other regions. .
Provision of the Declaration of the Right to Development
 Right to Development is inalienable human right. Every one has a right to participate and contribute to development and enjoy the benefits of development
 States have the primary responsibility for the creation of national and international conditions favourable for development – States should formulate appropriate development policies, undertake all measures and encourage all people to participate in all spheres of development
 States should eliminate all obstacles to development
 Sustained action is required to promote rapid development
 States should ensure that massive violations of human rights are eliminated – resulting from racial discrimination, apartheid, foreign domination etc.
 Equal opportunity should be provided for all for development . Women should play an active role in the development process. Ensure that equal opportunities are provided to all sections of the community – access to basic resources ( education, health services, food, housing, employment and fair distribution of income)
The process of development should be transparent and accountable.
Rights to Development is often treated as a collective right. It is not logical to treat it as collective right as every human is entitled to the Right to development . The human person is the active participant and beneficiary of the development .
The Right to Development is generally accepted but not legally binding.
3. CEDAW – Convention on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women
International instruments such as UDHR and ICCPR have all recognized the basic equality of men and women. However there was a need for a specific instrument addressing the problems of violation of Women’s rights. The UN adapted the CEDAW to ensure protection of women’s rights in 1979. It is a landmark agreement that affirms fundamental human rights and equality for women all over the world.
It Consists of a preamble and 30 articles, and it defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.
Discrimination is
Any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which affects the women from exercising their human rights and fundamental freedom in any field
To achieve the goal of CEDAW , the state should
o Condemn discrimination against women
• to take actions to end discrimination against women in all forms
• to incorporate this principle of equality of men and women in their legal system,
• modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which are discriminatory against women.
• Establish competent national tribunals and other public institutions to protect women.
• to take appropriate measures against all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of women.
In countries that have ratified CEDAW, women are working with their governments to improve the status of women and girls, and as a result have changed laws and policies to create greater safety and opportunity for women and their families. CEDAW can make a difference for women and girls, specifically to:
• Reduce sex trafficking & domestic violence
• Provide access to education & vocational training
• Ensure the right to vote
India and women’s rights - CEDAW
The constitution of India provides the legal framework for protecting human rights of women. The constitution guarantees Right to Equality, Right to freedom of speech, Right to exploitation , Right to religion, property, Constitutional remedies etc. . India has several other specific laws to protect the interests of women.
• Factories Act – regulates working conditions and working hours. . Rest room , crθches for children, separate toilets for women . Maximum Weights that can be carried by women etc
• Contract Labor Act – Separate provision of utilities for women and fixed working hours
• Maternity benefit Act
• Equal Remuneration Act – prohibits wage discrimination
• Domestic Violence Act
• Dowry Prohibition Act
• Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act
• Sexual Harassment and Sexual harassment at the workplace
• Hindu Succession Act - assures women of her share in property both as daughter and wife
The incorporation of CEDAW principles have been evident in the judgments by the Supreme Court. Various Commissions have been set up for better protection of women’s rights
4. Childrens Rights and CRC: ( Convention on the Rights of the Child)
The UN convention on the Rights of Child affirms that Children are born with fundamental freedoms and the inherent rights of all human beings.
CRC is the first legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights—civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights for the child. . In 1989, world leaders decided that children needed a special convention just for them because people under 18 years old often need special care and protection that adults do not. The leaders also wanted to make sure that the world recognized that children have human rights too. The whole hearted support of the world community to the UN’s efforts in promoting and protecting rights of the child received tremendous support of the world community.
A child means anyone below the age of 18 years. The Convention sets out these rights in 54 articles and two Optional Protocols. It spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere have: the right to survival; to develop to the fullest; to protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation; and to participate fully in family, cultural and social life. The convention provides for
• Protection against all forms of discrimination
• devotion to the best interests of the child;
• right to preserve his identity including nationality, name and family relations
• the right to life, survival and development; and
• respect for the views of the child.
• Right to freedom of expression, thought and religion
• Access to information
• Neither capital punishment nor life imprisonment may be imposed on a child
By agreeing to the Convention, national governments have committed themselves to protecting and ensuring children's rights and are obliged to take all actions in the light of the best interests of the child.
India – Human Rights of Child - Child Labor
UN Convention on the rights of the child proclaimed that childhood is entitled to special care and assistance and the child should grow up in family environment for the development of his or her personality.
However child Labor is a big issue. It is a complex issue and multi-dimensional problem,. It is a social evil and the violation of human rights and should be universally abolished. In India the constitution prohibits the employment of children in factories . No child below 14 should be employed in any factory or mine or hazardous work“. The law provides for free and compulsory education for children,. Child labor is prohibited in any sphere of activity .
However violations continue as children are employed for long working hours in factories, hotels, and households and even in hazardous industries. The Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) act was therefore adopted and yet there are millions of child labor in India. UNESCO reported that 20% of Indian GNP is contributed by child labor.
In addition to child labor there are several other issues related to child abuse, neglect, malnutrition, child kidnap, lack of education, growing number of street children, children crime etc
India has yet to fully implement US convention on child right. What is needed is a Code of Child Right and political leadership and commitment to protect childrens rights.
HUMAN CONCERNS & LEGISLATIVE MEASURES IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT
1. Health
The National Health Policy was endorsed by the Parliament of India in 1983 and updated in 2002. The National Health policy was to provide health for all by the year 2001 AD. However the management of health program has posed a serious threat and unless health management is given priority that it deserves, health plans will not yield the desired results.
The health profile of India is quite depressing
 Communicable and Infectious diseases are in the rise,
 Malnutrition continues to be exceptionally high
 Chronic illnesses disable people during their economically productive period of their lives
 waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid and hepatitis affect millions killing at least one million every year
 No. of leprosy cases are increasing,
 Blindness, leprosy and TB continue to be on the rise.
 Mortality rate of women and children are still high – 1/3rd of the total deaths is among children below 5
 Only 31% of rural population has access to potable water supply and 0.5 % enjoy basic sanitation
Reasons
 High rate of population growth has an adverse effect on the health of the people and the quality of their lives
 Health development policies aimed at curing ailment rather than preventive approach – has enhanced dependency instead of creating awareness and building up self reliance
 Various health programs have failed to involve individuals and families in establishing a self reliant community . Ultimate goal of achieving a satisfactory health status for all people cannot be achieved without their involvement in identifying their health needs and priorities as well as in implementation of the programs
Other problems are
 The government sector is understaffed and underfinanced, resulting in poor services at government hospitals
 80% of our doctors work in urban areas whereas 80% of our population live in rural areas.
 There is a huge gap between the need and the availability of no. of hospital beds per 1000 population. World average is 3.96 hospital beds per 1000 population but India has just a little over 0.7 hospital beds per 1000 population. Moreover, India faces a shortage of doctors, nurses and paramedics that are needed to serve the growing healthcare industry.
Need for a Revised health policy
To achieve health for all , we need a revised health policy which should take into account the following strategies
1. Population stabilization – no progress in healthcare is possible unless there is awareness and voluntary efforts in controlling population . A national population policy is required for population stabilization
2. Medical and health education –The medical and health education, should be reviewed in terms of national needs and priorities and the curriculum and training programmes restructured to produce professionally trained personnel .
3. A rural health care system based on a combination of preventive, promotive and curative health care services should be started right from the village.
4. Infra structure for rural health care should consist of primary health centres and sub centres. Facilities for treatment in basic specialities should be available at all centres
5. Adequate medical, paramedical manpower should be made available and trained for meeting the requirements of each program
International community has committed to health for all . Except for USA, Canada and Western Europe, the world is still trapped in ill health , poverty , malnutrition and diseases . Unicef, WHO and FAO are actively involved in education for rural and urban poor about health issues and nutrition .
Although there are efforts to improve the national health many more economic and social support measures a have to be taken. Financial allocation have to be increased. Many agencies, voluntary and non-governmental and private organizations have to be involved if we have to make the dream of “Health for all” come true.
2. Children -
Children are the future of any country. They bring development and prosperity. But they are also the most vulnerable part of the society and can be easily targeted. In India there are a number of laws related to children in order to protect them and to give them a better and sound development.
The Constitution provides the children
• Equality before law
• Free compulsory education for children in the age group 6-14
• Total ban on Forced labor
• prohibits employment of children in hazardous factories below the age of 14yrs.; e.g.: mine, match industries etc.
There are several other Acts in order to protect children rights: eg The Factories Act, 1948.The Child Labour Act, 1986. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1986. The Juvenile Justice Act, 2000, (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 2002 and many others.
The Issues:
About 36 % of the population of India is under the age of 14. The Factory Act was passed to regulate the use of children and fixing their hours of work. The child labor (Prohibition and Regulation ) Act was enacted to prohibit employment of children below 14 and in some jobs and hazardous factories.
In spite of various regulations, Millions of these children are employed in carpet industry, glass factory, Zari industry , lock industries , brass industries and fireworks factories . Children are employed for long working hours in factories, hotels, and households . Children are being forced in many labour works, domestic works, bonded labour, rag picking, forced to work in roadside eateries, prostitution, in factories etc.
In addition to child labor, there are also issues of child trafficking, sexual exploitation and many other forms of violence and abuse. Act of neglect, mal treatment of children , physical violence are all too common. There is a growing number of street children who are more vulnerable to abuse and crime. Girl child suffers more from discrimination – infantile foeticide, rape, dowry and in some cases even sati.
The reason for above state of affairs is Poverty, ignorance of parents, discrimination of gender and , children are easily targeted only for the reason that they cannot raise their voice as adults
Government initiative
The government of India has set up the Department of Women and Children Development under the Ministry of HRD with the following objectives
• To improve the nutritional and health status of children below
• To lay the foundation for the proper psychological, physical and social development of the child
• To reduce mortality, morbidity , malnutrition and school dropouts
• To achieve effective coordination of policy and implementation among various departments to promote child development.
The government is taking up several other measures like the National Policy for Children. The government has a special cell to help children in exploitive circumstances. These cells comprise of social inspectors, as well as other administrative personnel, employed specifically to deal with child labour issues.
Child labour in domestic work has been strictly banned by the Government, because of the increased cases of child abuse and sexual abuse of children especially girl child. To stop child labour is not only governments but each individual’s social responsibility, as children are assets of a nation.
Balika Samridhi Yojana is set up specially for encouraging enrolling and retention of girl child in school
UNICEF Programs are being implemented in India to
 Educate and Empower families with knowledge and skill to care and protect children
 Reduction of infant mortality
 Improvement in children nutrition
 Ensuring universal elementary education
What is required is a proper Code of Child Rights in India . along with various laws, it is also our social responsibility to take care of the children & to protect their rights.
3. Women & Law
The social status of women in India is considerably low and miserable as they continue to be the victims of a number of social evils and different forms of discrimination . Some of the problems faced by women are
 Low participation of women in active politics and employment
 Mass illiteracy and traditional outlook
 Sexual harassment at workplace
 Domestic violence
 Bride burning and dowry deaths
 Rape and women trafficking
 Inequality in wages
To protect women against any forms of discrimination we have constitutional rights eg
 Right to Equality – Equality before law , equal protection to both men and women,
no discrimination on grounds of sex, no discrimination in public employment on grounds of gender, equal pay for equal work
 Right against exploitation etc
India has several other specific laws to protect the interests of women eg
• Factories Act
• Hindu Succession Act
• Widow Remarriage Act etc.
• Domestic Violence Act etc
• Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act
• Indecent Representation of Women (Prevention) Act
• Dowry prohibition Act
• Sati Act etc.
Unfortunately all the above laws have improved the status of women only marginally. Dowry deaths, domestic violence and sexual harassment at workplace are still on the increase.
Women have been exploited, tortured and humiliated in India from ancient times and the crime continues even today. Violence in women can be criminal violence ( rape, kidnap, murder) , domestic Violence ( physical and mental torture, sexual abuse, ill treatment of widows, elderly) and social violence ( forced female foeticide, eve teasing, sexual harassment at work place, dowry deaths etc)
Women in urban areas enjoy better status in society than women in rural areas. They are better educated and are more aware of their rights and privileges. Many of them are also working women. However at the workplace, the women are still discriminated . They get lower pay than men, and are offered a limited range of employment like teaching, nursing, clerical jobs, telephone operators, etc . There are several cases of sexual harassment at workplace. After marriage , they save to sacrifice their jobs . In India women are still dependent on men even though their status has improved since independence ..
Government of India has been making efforts to improve the condition of women . In 1985, the Department of Women and Child Development was created for the welfare of women. In 1992, the National Commission for women was established to promote and guarantee women’s rights. In addition to this several organizations have been set up specially for the social & economic upliftment and self employment of women - A number of programs are conducted by these organizations -
 to provide training and employment to women
 to form self help groups
 for rural women’s development and empowerment
 Working women’s hostels
Domestic Violence
Domestic violence is a common occurrence in both rural and urban areas. 22-60% of women surveyed suffered physical violence.. Domestic violence is recognized by law as a criminal offence . 4 types of cruelty are dealt with by this law
 Any conduct that drives a woman to suicide
 Conduct that causes grave injury to life or health
 Harassment for property from woman or her relatives
 Harassment because the woman or relatives are unable to fulfil demand for money or property
The punishment is imprisonment upto 3 years and a fine
Women’s organizations have helped in creating awareness about domestic violence and have urged changes in the perception of police and the criminal procedure.
Domestic violence takes different forms – physical abuse, sexual abuse, financial and psychological abuse, mental and physical torture etc. Female foeticide, dowry harassment , ill treatment , are also various forms of domestic violence. The lack of awareness among women about their rights, non availability of professional help, illiteracy, dependence on male, traditional upbringing are some of the reasons for increase in domestic violence
Domestic violence Act 2005
Domestic Violence Act 2005 is the first significant attempt in India to recognise domestic violence as a punishable crime. This act is a follow up of CEDAW – UN Convention on elimination of all forms of Discrimination against women.
This is the first law in India specifically addressing domestic violence - targeting husbands, live-in partners and family members who abuse or threaten women verbally, physically, sexually, emotionally and economically including dowry harassment.
The most important features of this Act are the women’s right to reside in the matrimonial and shared household, appointment of protection officers and counselors for the affected women. The Bill came under criticism , mainly from men who argued that it can be manipulated as it provides wide-ranging power to women and the bill was passed after a lot of struggle.
However implementation of the law has lot of issues. Most state governments have yet to appoint protection officers, overburdened judiciary, indifferent attitudes of police, inability of women to speak out as they still depend on their husbands etc.
In order to implement the law, NGO’s and activists will have to work closely with the judges. Women are also slowly becoming aware and stepping out slowly for building their independent career and raising their voice for equality and against discrimination. Today there are women who are flying aircrafts, running autos or buses and trains. More and more women are seen in offices in senior positions. In many fields women are successful and establishing their equal rights , earning their due respect in society. What is required is mass awareness about the legal rights of women and empowerment.
The government has to play a crucial role in ensuring that women enjoy the fruits of development in equal measure as men. In this context, the Women’s Reservation Bill ensuring 33% reservation to women in Parliament and State legislatures( which was passed by the Rajya Sabha) is a welcome step towards women empowerment .
WOMEN’S MOVEMENT

Issues:- Atrocities against women in the forms of
Violence against women:-
• Domestic Violence
• Dowry Harassment & murder
• Widowhood
• Sati
• Child Marriage
• Physical Torture and Mental Torture
• Criminal Violence
• Rape
• Abduction
• Prostitution
• Social Violence
• Female Infanticide
• Eve Teasing
• Burning of witches
Other Issues:-
• Alcoholism and wife beating
• Problems of working women – Sexual harassment, improper wages, long-hours of work
• Oppression and exploitation of Dalit and minority women
• Communalism
• Obscene posters
• Problems of maid-servants
• System of temple prostitution
• Deforestations
• Harassment of women under trials and prisoners
• Health issues of women – suffer from ill health and mal-nutrition
• Cultural oppression of women tribal and problems of women in slums
• Right to decision making:-
• Women has no choice in relation to important events in her life such as marriage, parenthood, family planning, participation in community activities and divorce
• Right to knowledge:-
• Women are generally ignorant about functioning of their bodies especially, the reproductive system.
• Lack of sex education and the consequent faulty attitude towards sex
• Sexuality increases morbidity rate in women
• Awareness of legal rights:-
• Dowry Prohibition Act 1961
• Hindu Marriage Act of 1955
• Suppression of immoral traffic act (SITA)
• Uniform civil court
• Minimum wages act
• Equal remuneration act
• Insurance – state insurance act
• Right for the adoption
• Property inheritance act
• Medical termination of pregnancy act
Political rights
• 30% reservation
• Women has also entered into the political aspects as voters, legislators and leaders
• Other rights
• Right to survival – Female Feticide & Female Infanticide
• Right to education
• Right to liberty and security of the person
• Exploitation at the work place
• Selection of a career
• Choice of a partner in marriage
• Problem of dowry - Violence due to dowry
• Current situation as regards dowry


• Patterns of Mobilizations:- To mobilize public opinion for women’s rights and against innumerable forms of women’s oppression, they issue
• Leaflets
• Pamphlets,
• Collect signatures in support of their demands
• Write articles in various journals and newspapers
• Try to get media coverage,
• Organize protest rallies
• Sit-ins and demonstrations
• Role of Media :- The women group have discovered narrating and acting the violence in the form of
• story form,
• Reciting poetry
• Involving songs
• Slide shows
• In the context of rising religious chauvinism
• Exhibitions
• Documentary films and Dramas on selective abortion of female fetuses, bride burning, sexual assault, sati and coercion in family planning programs have sensitized large sections of society
• Several campaigns were launched against the degrading portrayal of women in films and against newspapers for reports on victims of violence which concentrated on their looks, dress on nature
• Dialogues with media persons through letters to the editors of national newspapers, through lectures initiated by the mass communication institutes and through panel discussions have helped to create an atmosphere of trust and many suggestions of the women’s movement have been incorporated in the unwritten code of conduct of the communication media
• Street-corner meetings
• Street plays
• Skits and songs
• Poster – exhibitions and tours
• Started non-commercial journals
• Magazines and news letters in various regional languages like
• Gujarati, Marati, Kannada, Bengali, Hindi etc.,
• To focus on specific problems of women, they have evolved special interest groups working in the field of
• health, media, law, violence against women, women squatters etc.,
4. Gay Rights Movement - India
India is a very traditional country and the law also remains very traditional especially in the area of human relationships. Our society legally recognizes only one form of sexual relationship that which helps in procreation.
Homosexuality is generally considered a taboo subject by both Indian civil society and the government. Public discussion of homosexuality in India has been inhibited by the fact that sexuality in any form is rarely discussed openly. Homosexuality has been treated by Indian society as a sin, against law, sexual perversion , a mental imbalance which needs to be treated , a disease and a crime to be punished. People deny homosexuality exists in India and label homosexuality as an upper class western phenomenon.
The laws regarding homosexuality around the world are different in different countries . In some countries like Bangladesh, Singapore ,Malaysia etc it is strictly forbidden, punishable upto 10-14 years imprisonment. Others like South Africa, Australia, Greece etc permit even gay marriages. However homosexual rights in even progressive countries are not fully equal.
In India, Section 377 of the Indian penal Code makes all kinds of unnatural sex, including homosexuality a punishable crime. While the Indian constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of sex, race, caste and creed it does not take into account sexual orientation.
Since homosexuality is a crime under section 377, organisations of homosexuals are not permitted as legal bodies. Homosexual couples are not recognised in India. Tolerance towards homosexuals is also very limited . It is more tolerated in cities than in small towns.
In recent years, however, attitudes towards homosexuality have shifted slightly. In particular, there have been more depictions and discussions of homosexuality in the Indian news media and by Bollywood.
Many gay activists and supporters have been working for the rights of the homosexuals. Several organisations like the Naz Foundation (India) Trust, the National AIDS Control Organisation, Law Commission of India, Union Health Ministry, National Human Rights Commission have supported decriminalising homosexuality in India, and promoted tolerance and social equality for homosexuals.
On 2 July 2009, the Delhi High Court decriminalised homosexual behavior between consenting adults, throughout India i.e homosexual act is not a crime and not punishable under law.. There were however a lot of opposition specially from religious groups. Their argument is , it is against Indian culture.
With this court ruling, Gays can now lead a life like normal human beings and not as criminals. They can hope to get legal equality. This is a sort of victory for the gay rights. However it is to be recognised that Indian society is still at large anti gay and same sex marriage may not get social or legal approval. The most important task is to educate the public and raise awareness about the sexual minorities and their rights.
5.. Education & India
Right to Education has received considerable focus during the last decade. Many groups and agencies made determined efforts to ensure that all children in India receive at least the minimum of education irrespective of their socio-economic status and their ability to pay for education. Education is an essential human right and achieving this for all children is one of the biggest moral challenges of our times. The right to education is included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Convention on the rights of children.

The National policy on education was a significant step in the history of education but has not achieved much due to lack of strategy for implementation

Problems
 Despite various government efforts, one thirds of the population till remains illiterate
 Of the nearly 200 million children in the age group between 6 and 14 years, more than half do not complete eight years of elementary education; they either never enroll or they drop out of schools.
 Percentage of children enrolling in secondary schools in the age group 14-17 is much less when compared to developed countries and other developing countries ,
 In higher education less than 10% are enrolled.
 Gender and spatial disparities are high.
 Rural populations are at a higher disadvantage & schooling among women are less than that of women in all states
 Lack of facilities, proximity to schools discourage children from joining schools
 Poor quality of education and teachers
 The Revised policy on education (1992) suggested provisions of adequate classrooms and teachers . But still many schools are being run in the open, in tents and kutcha buildings.

Efforts are on to improve school environment and facilities. The Education guarantee scheme (2000) is viewed as an effective way to improve enrolment. National policies lay stress on eradicating illiteracy altogether and to provide universal elementary education to all in the shortest possible time.

India has made a concrete effort to address the issue of education by amending its Constitution to make quality elementary education the right of every child. Elementary education has been made a fundamental right . With the amendment to the constitution, elementary education is made free and compulsory for all the country’s children.
Right to Education Act 2010
The Right of children to Free and Compulsory Education Act come into force from April 1, 2010. Some of the features of this Act are
 Every child in the age group of 6-14 years will be provided 8 years of elementary education in an appropriate classroom in the vicinity of his/her neighbourhood.
 The state has the responsibility of enrolling the child as well as ensuring attendance and completion of 8 years of schooling
 . No child shall be denied admission for want of documents;
 no child shall be turned away if the admission cycle in the school is over and no child shall be asked to take an admission test.
 Children with disabilities will also be educated in the mainstream schools
 All private schools shall be required to enroll children from weaker sections and disadvantaged communities to the extent of 25% of their enrolment, by simple random selection. No seats in this quota can be left vacant.
While this Act is a welcome development , it should be noted that this act covers only upto age 14. As a signatory to the United Nations Child Rights Convention, India has accepted the international definition of a child as someone under the age of 18 years. The Act therefore does not cover the rights of 0-6 and 14-18 age group.

Also it can be argued that since the right to education in the Indian Constitution is limited to elementary education, there is a need for a regular review of our policy and make changes to promote access to higher education and early childhood care and education. While primary education should be compulsory and free, secondary and higher education should also be equally accessible
IV. POLITICAL RIGHTS

1.RULE OF LAW & POLICE REFORMS
The rule of law means no person is above law. The rule of law has been considered as one of the key dimensions that determine the quality and good governance of a country.
The principle behind the Rule of Law is- Law should be equally enforced and should be consistent with international human rights norms and standards. It also implies supremacy of law, an independent impartial judiciary , the right to fair trial without delay, rational approach to punishment and legal transparency.
Accordingly, arbitrary arrests; secret trials; indefinite detention without trial; cruel or degrading treatment or punishment; corruption in the electoral process, are all unacceptable.
The Rule of Law is the foundation of a civilised society. However in reality, Rule of Law is weakened - Police atrocities, custodial deaths, discrimination, harassment and , delays in justice are common features of our society.
Reasons : .
 Corruption and interference of politicians in the smooth working of the police force.
 Nexus between police & criminals and the judiciary & politicians . Some are connected with antisocial elements, .
 They abuse their power and authority
 Police is ineffective & inefficient and there is no accountability
 Outdated police Act and Police system
o Common police for all investigations – crime, riot, protection ,security, intelligence etc
o Outdated technology & weapons procedure , inadequate resources
Police reforms :
Several committees and commissions have put forth their recommendations for reforms but these have been pending for a long time. Laws relating to investigations and trial of criminals are governed by 3 laws framed in the late nineteenth century
o The Indian Penal Code
o The Criminal procedure Act
o The Evidence Act
The need for reform has long been recognized . The lack of political will remains the greatest obstacle to police reform. – it suits the politicians to have subordinate police to become partners in their corrupt dealings .
The Supreme court has issued several directives to reform the existing police system. The supreme Court recommended that the Chiefs of Police be selected through a transparent process and they should be in office only for a fixed duration . This is necessary for accountability and independent functioning . The police must be responsible for not only the service they provide, but also must be answerable for each and every action of theirs and also for the money that they spend. Misconduct of police staff should be severely dealt.
Reforms must be addressed by well thought out laws . A good model for Police Reforms would be the Model Police Act drafted by Sorabjee Committee.
Some of the recommendations for Police reforms made by the committee include,
• State Police Complaint Authority to look after the complaints of misconduct against the Police officers of the rank of SP and above.
• criminal penalties for some of the common neglects like non-registration of FIR, unlawful arrest and detentions.
• National Security Commission headed by the union home minister for the selection and placement of chiefs of central police organizations.. In states the State Security Commission would act as a watchdog and be headed by the Chief minister.
• Fixed tenure for senior officers so that they are free of "political transfers".
• Separation of investigation and law and order duties. This, if implemented, will definitely help improve the quality of investigation and hence the conviction rate.

The recommendations made by Soli Sorabjee committee have a far reaching implications and it is only hoped that these are implemented at the earliest and in letter and spirit.
2. CORRUPTION & POLITICIZATION OF CRIME
It has been an accepted fact that corruption is universal. Corruption in India is a phenomenon that one can face practically at every level and in every walk of life.- Government departments, police, municipal authorities, or educational institutions like schools or colleges. Today bribing is a way of life- even to get legitimate things done from public servants.
Corruption is defined as the use of public office for private gain, or in other words, use of official position, rank or status for own personal benefit.
Bribery, Extortion, Fraud, Favoritism to friends, relatives, using influence , using public property for private use are all corrupt behavior. Fraud and embezzlement can be done by an official alone but others such as bribery, extortion and influence peddling involve two parties – the giver and taker in a corrupt deal.
Corruption takes place at all levels: At high level and at the top - leading politicians who are well off, have lots of privileges, yet become corrupt due to greed for wealth and power to retain their positions whereas at Low levels corruption ( eg money paid for traffic violations ) is due to low income levels.
Corruption has led to deteriorating Law and order situation in the country. Democratic principles have been discarded. Today the number of politicians with clean image can be counted on fingers.
1. The following cases highlight how corrupt politicians misuse their power and position and interfere with the judicial system.
 46 cases were registered against Jayalalitha, Before becoming CM, her assets were only 6 crores, which grew to 67 crores after she became CM. Attempt was made to move Supreme Court to withdraw all pending cases against her. In spite of all the cases she was once again elected to power.
 Refusal of permission to the CBI to prosecute Balram Yadav, former SP Health minister in the Ayurveda Scam
2, Equally dangerous is the rapid rise in influence and authority of regional political leaders in national affairs. eg
 The riots after Babri Masjid demolition- Muslim groups protesting violently against the demolition and Shiv Sena ‘s planned attack on Muslims. The Maharashtra government and the police did very little to stop the riots
3. A no. of cases have come to light where financial irregularities have been found in government transactions
 In purchase of weapons during the Kargil war and contract for coffins. The total loss to the government was about 20000 million
 950 crore fodder scam in Bihar, shows the nexus between corrupt officials , politicians and mafia.
 The case of Telgi Fake stamp paper – Despite knowing the scam, the crime branch did not do much to stop . Only when Telgi was arrested by Karnataka Police, the scam came to light
 Commonwealth Games Scandal- India was shamed by Corruption involved in construction of the Games infrastructure, & Management of the games. A number of corruption charges have been levelled against Suresh Kalmadi, a politician and President of Indian Olympic Association
 Adarsh Society Scam - Flats meant for the wives of the martyrs in Kargil War, were grabbed by Ministers, powerful politicians and some big Army officers. Ashok Chavan had to resign as the Chief Minister of Maharashtra
 2G Spectrum case - Several Irregularities were found in allocation of 2G Telecom Spectrum. It cost about Rs. 1,90,000 crores to the government. The man behind the scam, Telecom Minister of India, A. Raja, had to resign
4. Along with corruption, Criminalization of Indian politics is a major threat to democracy. People with criminal records manage to become MPs and MLA’s . Nearly 1/4th of Indian Parliament members face criminal charges, "including human trafficking, immigration rackets, embezzlement, rape and even murder". At state level , specially Bihar and UP it is worse. eg
 Shibu Soren , Papu Kalani, Mohammad Shahabuddin – all involved in murder cases and facing trials are elected as MP
 Senior Haryana IPS officer R K Sharma, ordered elimination of Indian Express journalist Shivani Bhatnagar when he felt her blackmailing can cost him his job.
 The trial of Nitish Katara murder case and Jessica Lal murder cases showed how money, power and politics were used to tamper with evidence & cover up the crime
 Satyendra Dubey , an engineer, working for government of India was murdered when he tried to expose the corruption within the National Highway Authority’s Road project in Bihar.
5. Our Police have become more and more corrupt and inefficient . They commit atrocities, and violate human rights. Their nexus with the politicians is all the more serious. Politicians want subordinate inefficient police so that they can become their partners in crime. Eg
 Various communal riots across India has shown how political interference in the functioning of the police can lead to loss of life and property but how police misconduct goes unpunished
 The involvement of Gujarat police in 2002 Godhra riots is well known. The police refused to register complaints, conducted shoddy investigations and fudged evidences. Those officers who tried to stop the attack on minorities were transferred . One police superintendent who stopped an attack on school , rescued 400 students and registered criminal cases against the attackers was transferred while the Police Commissioner who supported the riots was promoted.
 How the Bhagalpur police gauged out the eyes of 31 under trials in 1980 haunt the crime scene in Bihar
 Police nexus with the underworld , and drug smugglers
The net effect of politicization of crime is
 An ineffective state
 Failure of police in enforcing law and order
 Increase in crime rate
 Country’s progress gets hindered
The above are the big names . But we all know that many police take bribes, as do telephone linesmen, various officials in municipal corporation and in income tax departments. People in general have become disgusted with the decline in law . But the crime is growing because people are not raising their voice and even tolerating corruption. The laws have many loopholes and procedures for investigation are complicated. What we need is honest politicians, and reforms in our judicial and police system and general public awareness .

CORRUPTION
Definition :-
Corruption in simple terms may be described as “an act of Bribery”.
It has also been described as “the use of public power for private profits in a way that constitutes a breach of law or a deviation from the norms of society.
Corruption is spread over in the society in several forms. Of these, the major ones are :
• Bribe ( money offered in cash or kind or gift as inducement to procure illegal or dishonest action in favour of the giver )
• Nepotism ( undue favour from holder of patronage to relatives )
• Misappropriation (Using other’s money for one’s own use )
• Patronage ( Wrong support / encouragement given by patron and thus misusing the position )
• Favouritism ( Unduly preferring one to other )
• Corruption can be among public servants. For example:-
• Sanctioning of contracts
• Passing bills
• Issuing of cheques etc.,
• The 4 major ministries in union government. They are:-
• Defence
• Petroleum
• Power and Communication – which are regarded as gold mine for making money
• The other departments are :-
• Public work
• Police
• Excise
• Revenue
• Causes of Corruption can be categorized as :-
• Economic
• Social
• Political
• Legislative
• Judicial
• Causes of Corruption :-
• Emergence of political elite who believe in interest oriented rather than nation oriented programs and policies
• Economic policy of the government
• Corruption is caused by scarcity
• Corruption is caused as well as increased because of the change in value system and ethical qualities of men who administer.
• Corruption can be traced to ineffective administrative organization. Lack of vigilance, enormous powers to the ministerial staff, unaccountability, defective information system etc., give scope to officials not only to be corrupt but remain unaffected even after following corrupt practices
• THE BOFORS PAYOFF SCANDAL in 1986 involved a total amount of Rs.1750 crore in the purchase of guns from the Swedish firm for the military. It was said that a sum of Rs.64 crore has been paid as kickbacks.
• THE CEMENT SCANDAL of 1982 involved the Chief Minister of Maharashtra, who was accused of allocating scarce cement for donations worth five crore rupees to one of his charitable trusts.
• THE PLOT SCANDAL in 1988-89 involved another Chief Minister of Maharashtra, who later became the Defence Minister at Centre, in which he offered plots to builders for consideration of money worth hundreds of crores of rupees
• THE BROWN BEVERI LOCOMOTIVE DEAL SCANDAL involved in the Central Railway Minister who was accused of having acquired vast properties in Karnataka without his every trying to reveal how he acquired the resources
• THE SECURITIES SCANDAL in Maharashtra involved the share brokers, directors and managers of several reputed banks
• THE PAY OFF SCANDAL in 1993 involved the then Prime Minister who was charged for having received a bag containing Rs.1.00 crore from one share broker
• THE SUGAR SCANDAL in 1994 involved a Union Minister of State for Food, who earlier was also involved in molasses decontrol scandal.
• THE TREASURY FRAUD SCANDAL involving Rs.200 crore was unearthed in Assam in June, 1995.
• THE HAWALA SCANDAL of 1991 not only rocked the political circles but in fact the whole society
• THE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SCAM took place in Bihar in which a large number of public officials of Animal Husbandry Department are accused of purchasing fodder beyond the sanctioned amount and of illegally withdrawing about Rs.950 crore from the government treasuries between 1990 and 1995.
• THE UREA SCAM is a scandal which is different from other scandals not because of the size of the kickback (Rs.133 crore) but because of the transaction was essentially fraudulent
• In the TELECOMMUNICATIONS DEPARTMENT SCAM, the former telecommunications Minister and his bureaucrat’s involvement came to light in July, 96.
• JMM SCANDAL is a bribery scan involving four MPs of Jharkand Mukti Morcha (JMM) party and three MPs of Janata Dal for receiving Rs.40 lakh early in July, 93 for exercising their vote to defeat the no-confidence motion in the parliament against Narasimha Rao’s ministry.
• THE INDIAN BANK SCAM involves financial irregularities by the Bank between 1991 and 1995 resulting in a loss of Rs.2,358 crore to the public sector bank
• A MAJOR MINING SCANDAL (July 2005) in Rajasthan’s Jodhpur and Jaisalmer districts has been exposed in the past few months. Several cases have come to light of upper caste influential people fraudulently getting quarry licences issued or renewed in the names of individuals belonging to the scheduled casts (SCs) and scheduled tribes (STs) and other backward casts (OBCs). Many actual leaseholders are completely ignorant that they are official owners of quarries, and continue living in penury. Some know about it but can do little to change the situation.
• Corruption is antinational, anti-economic development and anti-poor.
• Corruption is also anti-economic development
• Corruption is anti-national as was revealed by the fact that the terrorists in Kashmir were getting funds funds through Hawala route
The corruption can be tackled by adopting following strategies :-
• Simplification of rules and procedures so that the scope of corruption is reduced
• Transparency and empowerment of public i.e Right to information act by using information technology
• Checking corruption is prompt punishment
CRIME
• Crime refers to those activities that break the law of the land and are subject to official punishment.
• Delinquency refers to acts that are criminal or are considered anti-social, which are committed by young people
Types of Crime :-
• White Collar Crime
• The term covers many types of criminal activity, including tax frauds, embezzlement, the manufacture or sale of dangerous products as well as straight forward theft.
• White collar crime mainly involves the use of a middle class or professional position to engage in illegal activities.
Crimes of the powerful are those in which the authority conferred by a position is used in criminal ways – as when an official accepts a bribe to favour a particular policy
• Corporate Crime
• These are the offences which are committed by large corporations in society.
• Pollution, mis-labelling and violations of health and safety regulations affect much larger numbers of people than does small criminality
• Laureen Snider argues that many of the most serious antisocial and predatory acts committed in modern industrial societies are corporate crimes
• Garry Slapper and Steve Tombs have conducted studies and revealed six types of violations linked to large corporations :-
• Administrative
• Environmental (Pollution)
• Financial (Tax violations)
• Labour (Working conditions)
• Manufacturing (product safety, labelling)
Government Crime
• Victimless Crime
• By contrast “Victimless crimes” – the term is used by sociologists to describe the willing exchange among adults of widely desired but illegal goods and services.
• Organized Crime
• Organized crime is the work of a group that regulate relations between various criminal enterprises involved in smuggling and sale of drugs, prostitution and gambling and other activities
• Professional Crime
• Cyber Crimes

POLITICAL APATHY
• In India, political participation is characterized by political apathy.
• Political apathy reflects the vanishing point of political participation
• Some people develop no interest in political activity and become apathetic. Decline in electoral turnout, party membership and civic activism are signs or manifestations of political apathy
• People take democracy for granted. In the words of Pericles, a Greek statesman, “we consider a man who takes no interest in the state, not as harmless but as useless; and although only a few men originate a policy, we are all able to judge it”.
• In a democracy, one comes across two types of apathetic:
– Deliberate
– Non-Deliberate
• There are those who fail to participate because of
– Lack of information
– Lack of opportunity
– Incapacity
– fear
• These non-deliberate causes is seen more amongst the uneducated, poor, helpless and weaker sections of society
• The other type of political apathy is deliberate due to
– Lack of interest
– Indifference
– Political involvement perceived to be less rewarding than other kinds of human activity
– Lack of political efficacy – capacity to influence outcome
– Satisfaction with the current political system
– Total frustration with the system
– Ideological stereotype eg. Naxalites
– Cynicism – Rich and Intellectuals
CRIMINALISATION OF POLITICS IN INDIA
• Meaning:-
• The word criminal means a person, who has committed a crime, or, an act relating to, or, involving a crime.
• Criminalization of politics, therefore, means two things :-
• Entry of criminals, or, anti-social elements, into legislative assemblies through elections by anti-democratic means and consequent, frequent breakdown of law and order within the country ; and
• Commission of criminal acts, or, practices in public offices for personal and / or private gains
• Entry of Criminals or Anti-social elements in legislative assemblies in India:-
• Increasing criminalization of Politics and Breakdown of Law and Order
• Role of money power and muscle power in representative bodies
• Some politicians are seen as Rogues and Scoundrels
• Why criminals and criminal elements enter into Politics?
• Weak police force and inefficient legal system
• Lots of money with dons
• Remedies to cure maladies
• Public funding for election
• Casting of votes by middle class and upper class voters
• Blanket ban on defections
• Day-to-Day hearing of criminal cases against legislators
3. ACCOUNTABILITY ( Corporate Accountability) – Bhopal Tragedy
Accountability means being answerable and responsible to someone or to some event. It means giving an explanation for what you have done . Corporate accountability is the set of principles to ensure that corporates protect human rights, and promote clean and sustainable development .
These principles include responsibility for damages arising from their activities both to human beings and the environment, Protection of human rights, providing information , implementation of safe principles, promoting clean and sustainable development, avoiding corporate influence over governance etc.
Growing industries always cause much environmental pollution. Industries using lead, silica, asbestos, plastics are the worst. Industrial effluents are discharged into the rivers causing water pollution . Violation of pollution norms have occurred in many industrialized nations. The worst case in India is the Bhopal Gas tragedy.
Bhopal Tragedy:
In 1984, the Union Carbide’s pesticide plant at Bhopal leaked out a cloud of poisonous gas ( Methyl Isocyanate – MIC and other lethal gases) Six safety systems which were meant to contain the leak were not functioning. Nobody outside the factory was warned because the safety siren was turned off. Over half a million people were exposed to the deadly gas .the number of deaths to date is 20000. More than 120000 people are still in need of medical attention.
The plant was owned at that time by the US company Union Carbide. It was a case of gross negligence . 20 years after the world’s worst industrial disaster, survivors and their children are still fighting for justice against the corporation . There had been delays in their compensation for damages and medical care.
Union Carbide negotiated a settlement with the Indian government in 1989 for 470 million US dollars. Union carbide later merged with Dow. Dow, since its merger with union Carbide has refused to accept this liability in India.
Even after 20 years, the Centre and the MP government have not appointed a full time welfare commissioner to look into the claims of 16000 victims
Corporate accountability- Environmental liability
Union Carbide fled India leaving behind toxic gases which have leached into the groundwater. The disaster shocked the world and raised questions about government and corporate responsibility for industrial accidents that damage human life and local environments. Yet 20 years later, the survivors and various organisations are still fighting for justice.
Issues of plant site, toxic wastes and contaminated water have not been resolved. And no one has been held responsible for the leak and its consequences. Bhopal is not just an issue of industrial disaster and human suffering. It is very much an issue of corporate accountability, peoples’ rights and government responsibility.
The lack of mandatory laws and norms governing multinationals, legal complexities, and government failures are serious obstacles in ensuring justice for the people of Bhopal, and for the victims. Bhopal tragedy is a Corporate crime against environment, peoples’ lives and safety.
Since profit is the main motive of corporations, safety measures are provided only when there are pressures of activists and strong regulations. The Indian government has welcomed polluting industries partly because of the pressure to attract foreign investment. Industries often use outdated processes and equipment banned in the West for their environment and health damage.
In spite of having no adequate infrastructure to protect public health or the environment, the Indian Government continues to allow more investment in polluting industries.
The question is - Should the government in the first place have allowed a MNC to set up a subsidiary in India to manufacture product which is a highly toxic substance- that too in a backward area like Bhopal?
Union Carbide managed to escape its obligations for the Bhopal disaster by passing the responsibility to the Indian government .The biggest factor in the tragedy is the failure of Union Carbide to provide the right information to the people and the government regarding the nature of the gas and the extent of danger . Because of this the doctors could not treat the victims properly.
What happened in Bhopal is not unique. There are also many other cases around the country for which critical information is needed , in order to protect the environment and the lives of workers. We now have the Right to Information Act, but this law does not apply to the private sector.
The present conditions call for more public disclosure, more transparency, and more accountability on the part of the companies. Without information, local communities live in the dark, employees unknowingly work in hazardous ways, and shareholders make uninformed investments.
There is thus a strong case for corporate accountability and the application of the Right to Information in the private sector.

REGIONAL ISSUES
1. MAHARASHTRA ECONOMY –,
A.Maharashtra economy, Agricultural patterns
Industry is the backbone of Maharashtra’s economy. The State alone contributes to 23% of the country’s entire income. Mumbai, the capital of Maharashtra is the hub of country’s textile mills.
Sugar industry has a significant contribution to the economy. There are other industries like the pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, automobiles, engineering and others which constitute a considerable share of the state’s economy.
Though largely an industrial state, agriculture also continues to be a part of the gross income. The black soil prevents cultivation of food crops and the principal crops include jowar, bajra, whet and pulses and several oilseeds like groundnut, soyabean, sunflower etc. Irrigation facilities are extensively available to reduce dependence on rain
Agriculture pattern
Nearly 55% population depend on agriculture . Agriculture provides employment to a large number of rural people. However contribution of agriculture is reducing in spite of huge expenditure on irrigation because of unfavorable agro climatic conditions and faster growth of industrial sector. Failure of rainfall at critical stage of plant growth results in crop failure. The yield per hectare is much below the national average.
The growth of agriculture is important for sustaining food security and improving rural standard of living. Both the Central and State governments are helping with resources , creating infrastructure, facilitating easy availability of inputs, research & technology improvements.
1. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana has been set up by the government in 2007 to benefit the farming community and to achieve 4% growth rate. Areas of focus under the scheme are
 Preparation of agricultural and allied industry plans for the entire state
 Setting up micro irrigation system
 Increase production of cereals, pulses and oilseeds
 Enhance farmers income by adopting allied activities like animal rearing, dairy development, fishing etc along with agriculture
 Help farmers in marketing their produce at fair price
2. The National bank for Agriculture performs a key role in the development of agriculture . The public and private sector play a significant role in distributing the hybrid, and improved quality seeds of various crops.
3. Organic farming a new movement in Maharashtra and it is a welcome alternative. It reduces the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides and reduces the cost of cultivation
4. A number of major, medium and minor irrigation projects have been taken up by the State.
5. The Bharat Nirman Yojana is another initiative by the government of India for developing rural infrastructure – irrigation, rural housing , water supply, roads, rural electrification and rural telecommunication
6. Food Security Mission was launched to increase the production of rice, wheat and pulses from Rabi season
7. The State government has announced a special package of s 1075 crores for 3 years and established Vasantrao Naik Shti Swavlamban Mission to deal with the problem of farmers suicides in the Vidarbha region. The PM also has announced special rehabilitation package fo 3750 crores for the region

B Maharashtra Industrial growth , SEZ and MIDC
The Annual Survey of Industries has revealed that the Maharashtra State has contributed 21% of gross value of output. The composition of organized industrial sector has undergone considerable change over the decade. The value of consumer goods industry has declined but the share of intermediate goods industry has increased
According to the Central industrial policy, Maharashtra state has taken steps to attract more and more investments in the industrial sector and implementing policies with respect to Special Economic Zones(SEZ) , MIDC and MSME’s . The Industrial Policy has facilitated access to foreign direct investment and foreign technology.
1. Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Govt. of Maharashtra SEZ Policy is development oriented in order to encourage industrial growth in the state. The SEZ is the tax-free territory and the policies are targeted at propagating fast growth of the industrial sector. The main objective of SEZ Act are
• Promote exports
• Promote domestic and foreign Direct investments
• Creation of employment opportunities
• Development of infrastructure facilities
The SEZ scheme seeks to create a simple and transparent system and procedures for increasing productivity and the ease of doing business in Maharashtra. The Maharashtra State SEZ policy provides exemption of different kinds of state duties, taxes, time saving procedures for providing permits and land acquisitions etc
2.. The government introduced the MSMED ( Micro, small and Medium Enterprise Development) Bill in 2006 to address the issues faced by it. The Bill handles issues related to labor laws that affect daily operations of micro units and suggest measures to check delayed payment and encourage flow of credits by banks and financial institutions
3. In order to encourage balanced industrial development , the Government has set up a scheme known as the Package Scheme of Incentives 2007 (amended) .

4. Maharashtra State has taken a number of initiatives to develop IT and IT enabled service (ITES) sectors in the State . 369 private IT parks are being established in Maharashtra. 55 have been already set up generating employment for more than a lakh of people. The growth rate of FDI in IT sector has been the highest in the country . Maharashtra is among the top 3 states in IT export
5. MIDC – the Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation has set up IT parks. It is developing industrial areas with essential infrastructure like internal roads, water, electricity etc for faster industrial development . Also, with a view to arresting pollution, it has started hazardous waste management and common effluent plants on a joint venture basis with the help of local industrial associations.

With both the State government and the MIDC taking a proactive role in supporting diversified industrial development, Maharashtra manages to retain its status as the leader of Indian industrial growth.
C SEZ – issues
The purpose of setting up Special Economic Zones by the government are
• Faster industrial growth
• To offer good investment climate for export oriented industries
• Earning foreign exchange
• Providing modern infra structure
• Good governance
• Location specific advantages
• Tax incentives
• Employment generation
• Technological improvement
High tech industries that have come up due to SEZs:

• Electronics Manufacturing Services, Semiconductor, Aerospace,
• Other industries benefited : Biotech, Pharmaceutical, automobile, textile.

The issue :

Over 500 SEZ’s have been proposed in India of which 200 have been created already. World Bank is already thinking about the sustainability of such large number of SEZ’s . SEZ may also create environmental problems.

SEZ provides special privileges for exporters and business ventures. The only requirement is the investor to be a Net Foreign exchange earner. SEZ offers maximum benefits with minimum formalities eg.
• Tax incentives , duty exemption
• Permit Off-shore banking units
• Time saving procedures for clearance and minimum inspection
• Exemption for routine inspection of export and import cargo
• Considered as foreign territories for trade operations and duties and tariffs etc

Shortcomings

• Dilutes the power of local self government
• The SEZ Act 2005 does not call for Environment impact assessment
• It permits facilities like Golf Course, Desalination plants, hotels and non-polluting service industries within the coastal Zone Regulation area
• It isolates the Fisheries act 2005 besides others


There is a threat to the ecological system from many of the negative activities in SEZ, such as unregulated fishing activities, blast fishing , port development etc. Port developments tend to damage coral reefs, marine life and disturb the ecology of the region. Mundra Port has already been accused of violating Coastal Regulation Zone and destroying mangroves.

Maharashtra Government has already initiated programs for Mangrove conservation and protection . The Project mangrove carried out a variety of events in Maharashtra and Gujarat to create awareness of the people living along the coast about the importance of mangrove and their conservation

D Cooperative Banks Movements:
The co-operative movement has a great role in influencing the economic set-up in the rural country side. It has played a significant role in changing the economic conditions in the fields of rural credit, agricultural marketing, small-scale and village industries, farming, housing and consumers societies. The co-operative movement has brought about a number of benefits to the economically weaker sections of the people.
The first co-operative bank was organised in 1912 . In the past , the co-operative movement was mainly involved with credit activities..Cooperative banks finance rural areas for farming, cattle, hatchery and personal finance. Subsequently it expanded to marketing, supply of agricultural inputs, small and village industries, irrigation, fishing, cattle breeding, forest labour, housing, etc. The District Central Co-operative Bank with 25 branches in the district has played an important role in giving short-term and medium-term loans to agricultural credit societies, agricultural marketing societies and industrial co-operatives. Besides financial loans, , it provides guidance and direction to the co-operative movement in the district.
The co-operative movement has not made much progress in the field of marketing of agricultural produce due to lack of regulation of agricultural marketing.
The co-operative movement, however, has made significant progress in the fields of processing industries, village industries, crafts and forest labour.

2. SUGAR COOPERATIVES ( & Sugar Lobby)

Sugar cooperatives play a vital role and produce over 60% of the sugar requirement of the country. Sugar Cooperatives developed after independence. The Parvana Cooperative Sugar factory of Ahmednagar has been an outstanding success.

The objective of the sugar cooperatives are
• To cut and process the sugarcane and produce of members and non- members
• Manufacture of sugar and supply to the government as per government directives
• Enable modernization of farming and processing techniques,
• empower farmers to produce better quality sugarcane by providing them with various techniques to increase yield.
• Conduct research and development to produce better quality of sugarcane and thus higher productivity for sugar
• Carry out various welfare and social activities such as health, credit , education , cultural activities etc
A group of farmers come together and form a sugar cooperative because sugarcane requires processing. All farmers pool their money from their personal funds and invest in the construction of sugar mills. The managing committee usually consists of 18 people and 9 board of directors
The government encourages cooperative sugar factories by giving preferential treatment to them over private factories while issuing licences. The state government assists the cooperative sugar factories by contributing to their share capital. Sugar cooperatives are considered successful in rural development just like the Anand Dairy cooperative of Gujarat

The Sugar factories are facing many problems although the output of sugar has increased. The problems have led to the closure of many cooperatives in Maharashtra. The reasons for the closure are both natural as well as created. The problems are
• Political influence and interference in the functioning of the cooperatives and using the cooperatives for personal motives . Cooperatives have become victims of political rivalry
• Earlier the government was providing a lot of finance to the cooperative but withdrew the support forcing the cooperatives to shut down
• Corruption at alarming rates among the top level management led to closure of many sugar mills. Funds were taken away for personal use and even day to day operations were not possible
• Earlier a farmer had to sell and supply sugarcane to a specific factory. So the factory procured sugarcane regularly from the farmer at a fixed rate. Government later removed the system of zoning. Farmers then could sell the sugarcane to any one who gave the highest price. many cooperatives had to close down due to dezoning.
• Sugarcane supply was not uniform and when there was no supply the factories had huge loss due to idle time
• A large no. of sugar cooperatives have been declared sick units. Many are not functioning to their full capacity .
• Government policy regarding sugar results in fluctuation in area under sugarcane . when cane prices are fixed low, area under cultivation decreases . This in turn affects availability of sugarcane
• Export import policy of sugar , licencing of sugar units, irrigation policies , loan financing all have an impact on sugar production .
Careful planning, revival of sick units and long term policy is required to tide over these problems.

Sugar lobby:

The origin of powerful sugar lobby in Maharashtra dates back to the 1950s. Post Independence, sugar cooperatives became integral part of rural development and a ‘special’ status was given to the sugar cooperatives. The government assumed the role of a mentor by acting as a stakeholder, guarantor and regulator

Sugar Cooperatives were star performers in the first decade after independence – the fifties An important factor which contributed to the success of sugar co-operatives was the encouragement provided by the ruling Congress party to the formation of these co-operatives. Slowly there became a nexus between the politicians and the sugar cooperatives.

Some cooperatives were favoured with financial subsidies on the basis of caste. The sugar lobby became stronger with regulation policies such as cash subsidy, control over entry by rivals, and price fixing . Almost all powerful politicians in Maharashtra have been highly benefited by floating sugar cooperatives as it is ensures a huge vote bank. Since sugar barons have been ruling the state , the state have always rolled out subsidies and tax benefits to the sugar cooperatives.
Important positions in sugar cooperatives began to be held by members of state and local governments, Policy decisions like development of irrigation facilities and greater financial support from the government have all gone in favour of the politically stronger western Maharashtra at the expense of eastern Maharashtra .

Cane price has become a potent weapon that factory owners have used to lure voters and win mass support. Cane prices are found to be higher in western Maharashtra .

The financial assistance and the existing regulatory framework initiated in the fifties, are still. continuing due to vested interest of the sugar barons.

The ‘special’ status and assured government support, irrespective of performance have led to poor performance, both in technical and in financial terms.

What is required to get the sugar cooperatives out of trouble is a fresh start with minimal regulations. In keeping with the current trend competition from private sector must be allowed.

4. MILK COOPERATIVES (& Operation flood) :

Since independence Cooperative movements have been growing in all fields such as agriculture credit, sugar , handloom etc. . However, the contribution of cooperatives to India’s dairy industry is enormous. Milk cooperatives have created a revolution in the country.
India is the leading producer of milk in the world. Dairy cooperatives are the backbone of Indian dairy industry. . When the cooperative dairy movement was started, the daily per capita milk consumption was 106ml. Today, it is 250ml or 90 kg per year. Milk is the country's number one agricultural commodity.

The success of milk cooperatives is due to empowerment of the farmers. These cooperatives are not controlled by the government. The farmers own and manage them based upon the needs and demands of the community.
The Milk cooperative started in 1946 in a small town called Anand in Western India.
Tired of exploitation by traders and local private dairy, the milk producers organized themselves into village dairy cooperatives. These cooperatives formed the the Kaira Milk Producers Union. Soon it had its first dairy plant. It started producing and marketing milk products under the brand name Amul. Under the charismatic leadership of V. Kurien, the father of milk revolution, the Amul model of cooperatives soon became an example for others to follow . The government wanted the Amul model to be replicated in other parts of the country.
Operation Flood:
Operation Flood ( also called the White Revolution ) is the largest dairy development program ever launched in the world. It was financed by an initial investment of Rs 1164 million . Operation Flood, inspired by the Amul model and implemented by National Dairy Development Board- was implemented in three phases in the country between 1970 and 1996. The objective of Operation Flood was to set up 18 Milk cooperative Union on the Anand Model and link them with the 4 metros i.e to create a nationwide milk grid. The national milk grid links all milk producers through out India.
The objectives of the program are
 To increase milk production
 to make available wholesome milk at stable and reasonable price to consumers
 To improve productivity of dairy farming in rural areas,
 self sufficiency in milk
 improve the income of small farmers
 To remove dairy farming cattle from cities due to growing problem of generating waste, social cost and public health

The program included use of professional management and high technology and building up cooperatives at village level. Every milk producer can become a member of the cooperative. Each milk producer is paid on the basis of the quality of milk.
Operation flood can be classified under 3 activities
 Capacity & production increase
 Transportation
 Manpower planning and storing
With Operation Flood, India became the leading producer of milk pushing USA to second place.. Milk production in 1950’s was only 17 million tonnes and went upto 78 million tonnes in 50 years. Today India makes several milk products, milk cheese, condensed milk, chocolates, ice creams etc. The increase in per capita consumption of milk indicates the impact of operation flood.
When Operation flood was launched, it required substantial equipment for the new and upgrading existing ones. Therefore small enterprise and private industries were encouraged to develop local equipment.
Although there had been criticisms of Operation flood, the fact remains that Operation Flood Program has benefited small farmers and landless cattle holders and also the country
Today Amul has overtaken others in the ice-cream market. The biggest strength of dairy cooperatives is their labour intensiveness. Cost effectiveness is another important factor. Dairy cooperatives have effectively used the strength of farmers to develop self-reliance. It is unique. The future is indeed bright for dairy cooperatives.
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT
Trade Union or labor union is an organization of workers. The trade union through its leadership bargains with the employer on behalf of union members , negotiates wages, work rules, promotions, benefits , workplace safety and various other policy matters.
Trade Union Movement is organized activities of workers to improve their working conditions. In the early stages of industrial revolution when there were personal contacts between employers and the workers, there was no need for any organization to resolve disputes. But with more and more modernization , the personal touch became absent and the relations between employer and the employee came under stress.
Trade union movements started due to modern industrialization which brought in unfair labor practices – low wages, long working hours , unsafe working conditions, hire and fire policy etc. Workers reacted to these unfair practices by strikes, hunger strikes, bandhs, gheraos, demonstrations , mass casual leave etc.
For the first time in India the Bombay Mill Hands Association was formed in 1890. This was the beginning of the Indian trade union movement .
In the early stages, the trade union movement was influenced by communists, who were inspired by the Russian Revolution.
International Labor Organisation (ILO) set up in 1919 provided inspiration and encouragement to formation of trade unions. ILO also inspired the formation of AITUC (( All India Trade Union Congress ) in 1920 for the purpose of conducting and coordinating the activities of the labor organizations.
Trade Unions in India
1. INTUC ( Indian National Trade Union Congress ) – Founded in 1947, INTUC is the trade union wing of the Indian National Congress. Its aim is to establish an order of society which is free from hindrance in the way of all round development of its members, and eliminate social, political and economical exploitation and inequality
2. HMS – (Hind Mazdoor Sabha) – HMS is a centre of Trade Unions who believe in independence from political parties and the government in Trade union activities. It does not mean that HMS is apolitical, but its aim is freedom from political control. HMS presently has 16 industrial federations
3. AITUC ( All India Trade Union Congress) – founded in 1919 , AITUC is the oldest trade union federation in India and one of the 5 largest. It is associated with the Communist Party of India.
4. Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh – is the largest central trade union organization in India. Founded in 1955, has over 8 million members. It has around 5860 unions .
The Indian Trade Union Act gives legal protection to the Indian trade Unions.
Trade Union Movement with reference to Mumbai textile Industry
The communists organized a no. of trade unions and in 1926-27 organised a no,. of strikes, some which were successful. The communist leaders organized the textile workers and formed Girni Kamgar Union and in 1928 organised a big strike for the textile workers and also for workers of workshop of eastern India Railways.
Post 1960, after the Chinese aggression, there were splits in communist Party of India – CPI and CPI (M) . Initially both however remained with AITUC. In 1970 CPI(M )decided to set up CITU – which took away a no. of unions from AITUC specially in W Bengal and Kerala . In Mumbai , Shiv Sena established the Bharatiya Kamgar Sena and started dividing the working class on regional lines which eventually started the decline of the labor movement,. In mid 70’s Dr Datta Samant came in the textile mills scene , who contributed to the Great Bombay Strike of 1982. The defeat of the textile mill strike was the end of trade union movements in the city.
The history of textile union movement reveals the struggle on the part of mill workers and opposition union movements against state intervention. The textile mills in Bombay were controlled by large business houses eg Tatas, Birlas and Mafatlals. Workers were dissatisfied with the low wages, work pressures due to modernization, insecurity of employment , poor living conditions etc
Rashtriya Mill Mazdoor Sangh (RMSS) had represented the mill workers for decades but with deterioration of workers conditions, the millworkers became dissatisfied with RMMS.
In late 1981, a large group of Bombay mill workers rejected the RMSS and chose Dutta Samant as their leader to settle disputes with the Bombay Millowners Associations. This led to the Great Bombay Textile Strike (1982)
Samant formed his Maharashtra Girni Kamgar Union (MGKU) .The purpose of the strike was to obtain bonus and wage increases. Nearly 250,000 workers and more than 50 textile mills went on strike in Bombay.
Samant planned a massive strike forcing the entire industry of the city to be shut down for over a year. It was estimated that nearly 250,000 workers went on strike and more than 50 textile mills were shut in Bombay. Samant had full control of the Bombay textile mills. While fighting for greater pay and better conditions for workers, Samant and his allies also tried to establish their power on the trade union scene in Mumbai.
The central government considered Samant a serious political threat since his influence would spread to the port and dock workers and make him the most powerful union leader in Bombay . Thus the government rejected Samant's demands despite the severe economic losses suffered by the city and the industry.
The strike continued and there was no settlement for long , and many textile mill owners began moving their plants outside the city. After a long time, the strike collapsed and the workers did not gain anything by the long strike. The closure of textile mills across the city left tens of thousands of mill workers unemployed and, in the succeeding years, most of the industry moved away from Bombay. Although Samant remained popular with a large block of union activists, his control over Bombay trade unions disappeared.
Consequences
The majority of the over 80 mills in Central Mumbai closed during and after the strike, leaving more than 150,000 workers unemployed. Textile industry in Mumbai has largely disappeared,
However this is not the end . Even today there is a trade organization called Girni Kamgar Sangarsh Samiti (GKSS) and others who are fighting for the rights of the retrenched mill workers.
MIGRATION & DISPLACEMENT & RESETTLEMENT
Migration is physical movement of people from one place to another. It could be voluntary or forced.
Displacement and Resettlement
Infrastructural development projects carried out by states, frequently result in the displacement of peoples from homes that stand in the way of dams, highways, or other large-scale construction projects. In the past, poor rural farmers have been victims of large scale development projects in developing countries. Development projects like dams and road building have displaced a large number of people from their place.
Among the many cases of forced displacement in India, Narmada River Dam project is the most widely discussed, criticized and publicized.
Displacement results in
 Loss of land, job and home
 Food insecurity
 Social disintegration
 Loss of access to common property
 Marginalization
In India, there are roughly 60 million displaced persons and project-affected persons from various states . As more and more land is required for industrial growth, the number of displaced persons are in the increase. 50-60 million project affected persons (PAP) have been deprived of a livelihood without physical relocation .
The majority of the PAP are tribals, rural poor communities like fisherfolk, quarry workers and landless dalits and scarcely 20% have been rehabilitated. The rest are left to fend for themselves. The situation has worsened with the onset of globalisation.. A number of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are being planned all over India. The coal sector has been told to triple its production ,and massive dams are planned in several states. The outcome is more land and more displacement.
Issues
 PAPs have not received enough land and also face acute problems of fuel and fodder
 Lack of facilities in the new site, primary health centre, school, dispensary
 PAP’s are finding it difficult to adapt to new sites
 Quality of land given is poor
 There have been cases of human rights violation
 Income in the new sites lower than the income of farmers in their old village
Although relocation has been done in some cases, the rehabilitation is not satisfactory. There is family partition, unproductive land, loss of income , cut off from socio-cultural network, etc.
There has been several protests against project related displacements and the SEZ. . What is required a comprehensive rehabilitation policy
On October 11, 2007, the central government announced the National Policy for Rehabilitation and Resettlement 2007 (NPRR 2007), replacing the National Policy of 2003. The policy addresses some of the issues of rehabilitation and minimizing displacement, with the objective of striking a balance between the need for development and protecting the interests of the farmers and the landless. However there are criticisms about the policy and its implementation.
PEASANT MOVEMENTS
Innumerable peasant movements have come up widely over the years throughout the country. Peasant movements refer to the united actions of various sections of the peasant population either led by a leader or by peasants themselves to raise the voice against exploitation and for achieving the common interest of the peasant community.
The rise of peasant movement is often based on socio-political factors.- landless farmers, exploitation by landlords and poor wages of agricultural laborers. . The growth of commerce & agriculture and change from a consumption –oriented economy to a market economy is one of the major causes of peasant revolts.

Two major peasant movements were the Tebhaga movement in Bengal and the Telengana uprising in Andhra Pradesh . Both were under the leadership of Marxist parties and were predominantly among the tribals.
The second pattern of peasant movement focused on interests of small holders and landless laborers
These movements focused on demands like tenancy reforms, implementation of land ceiling legislations, redistribution of land among landless, increasing wages of agricultural laborers..
A new type of peasant movements also emerged in India commonly called farmers movements. These movements focused on lowering the prices of inputs, and increasing prices of agricultural outputs.
Most of these movements were outbursts of exploited masses and some of them w ere short lived.
Economic exploitation was the prime motivating factor of peasant movements . Some of them also raised political challenges. Rebels in many cases demanded both land and liberation
All India Workers and Peasants Party (WPP) had been formed in 1928 with communists playing an important role . Regional peasant organizations also emerged in Bihar , AP and Bengal .
Tebhaga movement – was a militant struggle by the share croppers to get two thirds of the produce. At its peak the movement involved 60 lakh sharecroppers who had to face stiff resistance and violent actions by the police. It did not last long due to leadership failure
Telengana Movement – started as a resistance movement of the peasants and landless laborers against feudal exploitation but in course of time became seizure of state power. The demands were abolition of forced labor, prevention of eviction, increase in agricultural wages of laborers and occupancy rights of the tenants. . After independence, the Telengana uprising was directed against the much stronger Indian state and turned into a struggle for the seizure of land . When the movement became an armed struggle against the Indian state, its mass appeal declined. Forced labor discontinued. Daily wages of agricultural laborers increased.
Anti Levy movement , West Bengal: The west Bengal government ordered that those owning or cultivating 10 acres of land or more will have to sell their surplus stocks of foodgrains to the government. Krishak Sabha opposed the policy and demanded exemption of peasants from compulsory levy. It failed however to bring about any change in the procurement policy of the government
Land Seizure movement , West Bengal : : Groups of peasants went in large numbers to disputed lands ( Benami lands) and occupied it. Immediately after possession the lands were distributed among the peasants. Harvesting in such lands became a group activity . Unfortunately in some cases land belonging to the middle and even poor peasants were seized
Naxalbari uprising: This movement originated in the Naxalbari region of North Bengal. The United Front government openly supported the movements of the landless who began seizure of land and also forcible harvesting. Many students from urban areas also joined the peasants in their struggle. With the fall of the second United Front government the police action against the peasant movements intensified and the first phase of Naxalbari movement fizzled out
The Naxalbari uprising also created a stir among the oppressed peasants in other parts of India specially Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, UP and MP.
Movement for Enhancement of Agricultural Laborers Wage : (1974-75) though landless laborers were participating in almost all peasant movements, separate movement for the khet majdoors was first started in 1970. The peasants needed both land and higher wages. The wage movement spread over 6000 villages and many poor peasants benefited by the rise in wages.
There have been discussions at the national level since 1990s about the .conditions of agricultural laborers but yet there has been no comprehensive legislation,. For years peasant organizations are demanding participation in framing and implementation of laws pertaining to peasants.
Short note on Naxalite Movement
The Naxalite movement erupted violently in 1967. It started as a spark in a small village , Naxalbari and within a few years spread to distant parts of India. The United Front government openly supported the movements of the landless who began seizure of land and also forcible harvesting. Many students from urban areas also joined the peasants in their struggle. With the fall of the second United Front government the police action against the peasant movements intensified and the first phase of Naxalbari movement fizzled out
Naxalism arose from certain basic factors – social injustice, economic inequality and the failure of the system to redress the grievances of the suffering people .
The Naxalbari uprising lasted just 52 days. The failure of the movement in Naxalbari was due to lack of strong party organization, powerful mass base , ignorance of military affairs and a formal attitude towards land reforms.
But it left a far reaching impact on many other parts of India specially Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, UP and MP.
The Naxalite violence was at a peak from about mid 1970 to mid 1971. Terrorist activities were on the increase .
• Naxalite leaders like Charu Mazumdar, influenced people to create hundreds of Naxalbaris throughout India. and called for revolutionary struggle . He even set the target for liberation of India by 1975. A large no. of West Bengal youth responded to his call. He called upon the youth to join the poor and landless peasants and go to villages in large numbers instead of wasting their energy in passing exams.
• There were raids on government offices damaging property and brutal attacks on policemen
• In the atmosphere of violence anti social elements infliltrated into the Naxalite ranks which had a bad effect on the organisations’ discipline and ideology. The anti social elements used the Naxalite umbrella to settle their own scores.
• The government took joint operations by the army and the police to tackle the violence. Suspected Naxalites were arrested, illicit weapons , ammunition and explosives were seized resulting in drop in violent activities
• Internal differences were building up within the organization which had a disintegrating effect. Also the Government pressure on Naxalites was building up and by 1972 almost all top Naxalite leaders were arrested. Charu’s death marked the end of a phase in the Naxalite movement. Emergency declared in 1975 led to banning of almost all Naxalite groups in the country
• New opportunities for Naxalites again grew in 1977 with the defeat of Mrs Indira Gandhi . 4 Naxalite groups demanded the release of all political workers and withdrawal of cases against them . The then Home Minister agreed to release the Naxalite prisoners.
• The movement again touched a peak in 1991 and today it is in a fragmented state. There are about 40 odd groups operating in different parts of the country.
The origin and growth of Naxalite movement is due to a no. of complex economic, social and political factors – extreme poverty, economic inequalities and exploitation , unemployment , income inequalities . The factors which gave rise to Naxalism in the country still persist even today. The Movement has its ups and down but it continues to have a large support base because of the intellectual appeal of its ideology. The movement has developed an inherent strength .
Self Determination and Secession (Separatist movements)
Self Determination
Self determination is the principle by which the people of a country exercises its right to choose its own government. It allows the people to live under laws of their own making or choice. Democracy enhances chances for self determination. There have been agitations for self determination (and sometimes secession) from various parts of the country.
Some of the self determination movements are
1. The Naga Movement:
 The Nagas are a tribe in the N E of India. Before independence Nagas demanded a separate Naga State and wanted to be under the British dominion rather than to be a part of India. They thought that India would introduce their laws and customs and replace Naga’s customary laws.
 There were about 20 Naga groups but there was no unity or cooperation among them
 The increasing violence by the extremist Nagas troubled peace loving nationalist leaders
 In 1963 Nagaland State was set up. Underground Naga leaders were divided into 2 groups, and one group continued its insurgent activities in 1968
 In 1975, the Shillong Accord was signed. The underground leaders accepted the Indian Constitution and accepted Nagaland as inalienable part of the Indian Union
2. Bodo and Assam Movement :
 Bodos are one of the earliest settlers of Assam and are the largest tribes of Assam. They ruled over Assam till 1825. Bodos are ethnic and linguistic community .
47% of population of Assam were Bodos in 1947 but they declined to 27% in 1971.
 Even after independence,the area had been facing neglect in the area of development. It soon became a centre of dissent and demands for secession.
 The Bodos wanted more autonomy for the Bodo tribes and the Assamese were concerned with the expulsion of foreigners
 The Assam Government passed the Illegal Migrants Detection Tribunal Act . This further irritated the Bodos since for the rest of the country only the Foreigners Registration Act was applicable. They felt there should be a single law regarding foreigners throughout the country
 Language was another problem. The Assamese language was imposed on Bodos.
 The Bodos were facing a loss of identity and culture.
 They demanded an autonomous status for tribals in the district , stop eviction of tribals who are landless and a separate Directorate for tribal education

3. Punjab Movement :
 In 1976, several terrorist and secessionist movements were growing in Punjab. The reason was the feeling of discrimination perceived by certain sections of the Sikh community and a feeling of alienation
 Sikh fundamentalists were on the rise . There was threat of militancy in the State. Sikh militant groups under Bindranwala demanded creation of a separate state for Sikhs, Khalistan. In 1981, they entered the Golden Temple . The Temple was converted into a military camp with highly sophisticated weapons. Bindranwala started preaching from within the Golden Temple to spread hatred against Hindus. Killer squads were set up who committed ghastly crimes like murder of bus passengers and prominent persons who were opposed to separatism.
 When Bindranwala went out of control, Indira Gandhi, ordered Operation Bluestar, military operation to expel the militants from the temple. The militants were successfully removed. The call for separate Khalistan died out

Secession
Secession is the act of withdrawing from political unity. There are several separatist movements in India mainly in the North East and the North west.
Indian constitution does not allow Indian States to separate from the Indian Union. Secession movements in Nagaland and Sikkim have been suppressed by Military. However separation sentiments still run high in these states.
Secession movements were also active in Mizoram, Punjab ( as Khalistan) , Tripura and Tamil Nadu. They have died down due to military action and political agreements like the Mizo accord and the Assam Accord.
Secession is considered justified only if secessionists can create a viable state . Many feel that secession could be considered only to rectify grave injustice or in cases of oppression of ethnic or racial groups.
Major secessionist movements are currently ongoing in Russia, Spain, Canada, Nigeria, India, and Sri Lanka, among others, and these movements have had a strong impact on international security. The ongoing secessionist movement in Kashmir, for example, is a major threat to security in South Asia .
Kashmir secession
For long time, Kashmiris want to secede from India. This desire comes mostly from the Muslim dominated Kashmir Valley , one of the 3 regions of the J & K.
Kashmiri Pandits (Hindus) – who were driven out of their homes in the valley and who continue to live in exile in Jammu or other parts of India want a separate homeland within Kashmir under Indian sovereignty.
Jammu, a Hindu majority region that feels discriminated by the Kashmiri Muslim-led state governments is seeking a separate state within the Indian set up.
Buddhist dominated Ladakh, economically the most backward region, has also been aspiring to have a Union Territory status within India.
The Indian government has been against the idea of secession as well as demands for any sort of territorial division for 2 reasons - J&K’s secession will weaken India’s secular principles and if India grants independence to Kashmir, it will set a precedent for secession movements in other states like Assam, Nagaland and Punjab..
Supporters in Kashmir argue that if superpowers like the Soviet Union could break-up in the past, then India, which is only a developing country, can certainly suffer a similar fate.
Given these arguments, it is very unlikely that J&K will be able to secede or achieve territorial re-organization or division .
TRIBAL MOVEMENTS
In India there are a number of tribes specially in Northeastern part of India – Orissa, Nagaland, Arunchal Pradesh , Manipur , Assam, Bihar and in some parts of Southern India. Tribal peoples constitute roughly 8 percent of the nation's total population. Tribals are drawn from a variety of races
Most tribes are concentrated in heavily forested areas . Historically, the economy of most tribes was subsistence agriculture or hunting and gathering. Tribal members traded with outsiders for the few necessities they lacked, such as salt and iron.
. Problems
 Tribes live in secluded and largely inaccesible regions of the country. They live in harmony with nature but are deprived and poor..
 Tribes largely engage in shifting agriculture. However there has been large scale encroachments on their already limited land.The government has declared a large part of the land as forest area for conservation. The traditional food security is thus being threatened.
 In some areas due to the communication revolution, the tribals are linked to urban industrial centres, non-tribals migrate to tribal homelands reducing the % of tribal population . Tribal population is also reducing due to natural calamities, lower fertility rate, high mortality rate etc. Many tribes have become extinct.
 Tribals have also been evicted from their land by governments’s macro development plans. Eg 5 factories were set up in tribal areas of Bihar .
 Education is not encouraged by parents.There are different dialects for several communities which makes educating even more difficult.
Tribal Movement:
Although tribal societies are considered to be rigid, changes are taking place – from within as well as due to political interventions. There have been rapid changes over the years that have caused a serious disintegration of the tribal societies.
They have started raising their demands before the political authorities. There are also certain organizations , non-tribal like the Christian Missionaries that act on their behalf. These give rise to movements sometimes of a violent nature. At the end of 1960’s there were 36 ongoing movements of which 14 were concentrated in North east. The movements were for
 Political autonomy – Demand for Separate state within Indian union ( Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya became separate states in 1960’s) and also for complete secession from Indian Union
 Forest biased movements
 Cultural movements – (demand for preservation of tribal language)
Jharkhand Movement:
Jharkhand literally means “the land of the jungles”. And the Jharkhands are the original inhabitants (adivasis) of the region. They consist of tribes such as mundas, santhals, Savaras etc
After independence outsiders kept pouring in and the tribals were reduced to minority. Also a lot of tribals moved out to far of states like Gujarat, Maharashtra , Karnataka , Assam. It was felt that Jharkand was developing but not the Jharkhandis. Of the 7 industries set up in the region, the tribal representation was low.
A small tribal educated group emerged in these societies by the western education introduced by Christian Missionaries. These educated tribals showed concern for modernizing tribal societies and for conservation of traditional values. Tribal politics gradually developed into a struggle for freedom.
The Jharkhand Mukti Morcha ( 1972) was established and the all-India Jharkhand Students Union (1986) went through a lot of ups and downs. Jharkhand state was created in 2000 by carving out 18 districts of Bihar but some Tribal dominated districts are still not part of Jharkhand.
Bodo Movement:
 Bodos are one of the earliest settlers of Assam and are the largest tribes of Assam. They ruled over Assam till 1825. Bodos are ethnic and linguistic community .
47% of population of Assam were Bodos in 1947 but they declined to 27% in 1971.
 Even after independence, the area had been facing neglect in the area of development. It soon became a centre of dissent and demands for secession.
 The Bodos wanted more autonomy for the Bodo tribes and the Assamese were concerned with the expulsion of foreigners
 The Assam Government passed the Illegal Migrants Detection Tribunal Act . This further irritated the Bodos since for the rest of the country only the Foreigners Registration Act was applicable. They felt there should be a single law regarding foreigners throughout the country
 Language was another problem. The Assamese language was imposed on Bodos.
 The Bodos were facing a loss of identity and culture.
 In 1968 all Bodo Students Union raised the slogan of Divide Assam Fifty- Fifty.
 The tribals were agitated by the rise of Assamese nationalism which protected the Assamese speaking population. In 1984, all BOdo students Union gave a call for a separate state of Bodoland.
 Following the riots for 8 years a settlement provided for creation of “Bodoland Autonomous Council”.
The policies of the government towards the tribals have changed over the years. They are working towards encouraging traditional arts and culture, respecting tribal rights to land and forest rights and providing support and training
Eg., The Scheduled Tribes (Recognition of Forest rights) bill 2005 was passed by the government. The Bill allows tribals and non-tribals living in forests (upto 2005) rights to use their forest land for livelihood since it is their ancestral land and they need the land to sustain their culture.
Q. Communalism is a threat to national integration discuss
What
Communalism means placing ones own community before others even before the nation. . Communal feelings trigger communal tension, spreads hatred and leads to communal violence and riots. When a person places his religion and community even above the nation, there is a threat to national integrity

Communalism is usually associated with religion . It refers to militant approach of a religious community against other communities and using religion for political ends.. A communalist is basically interested in using and exploiting religion and that too for political, electoral and economic gains. A communalist is not a truly religious person, he may believe in religion but he is more interested in exploiting religion for gaining political power , personal interest or dividing the people , achieving cheap popularity .

Communalism can take two forms:
Communal tension – communalism takes the form of violent expression of religion by which the religious sentiments of other religions are badly hurt. It can happen on small issues like when a cow is slaughtered, or music is played in front of the mosque, Communal tension is like letting out emotions and generally involves the lower classes of people and anti-social elements. It is short lived and disappears after things become normal . But every time there is communal tension there is more enmity developed and it leads to communal riots at a later stage.
Communal politics - Communal tension leads to communal politics. Political parties use communal sentiments - it takes the form of emotional speeches, accusations, propaganda , baseless rumours, . This creates mass frenzy and ends in violence,. Political parties use these opportunities for their gain.
Various dimensions : There are many dimensions of communalism –
 Small religious groups integrating into a bigger group – eg Jains, Sikhs,
 Work towards welfare of a particular community and protect the interests of one particular community eg Parsis and Christians
 Small community keeping away from politics eg., Jain, Parsi Community
 Seeking a separate cultural identity and also a separate territorial identity like the Nagas, Bodos
 Seeking a separate state ( secessionist) eg Khalistan movement
 Attack, harm , hurt or injure the members of opposed religious community eg., Hindus and Muslims or the MNS
India is a secular country and every citizen is free to practice his own religion and support his own community.. Although we are a secular country, Communal tension exists between various religious groups. In Kashmir ,it is Islam against Hindu , in Gujarat ,it is Hindutva forces against Muslims and in Punjab it is Sikhs against Hindus .These tensions are not conflicts of different cultures; each one of them is actually a political movement
Effects:
 Communal tension and communal politics go together. Some political parties like Muslim League, Hindu Maha Sabha, and RSS involve the masses in generating communal tension on a large scale to achieve certain political advantage. Communal politics is against the principle of secularism and hence a threat to national unity and integrity.
 Communal violence based on religious differences are exploited by political forces for their own benefit. Also anti social elements take advantage of such communal violence. At the national level, politicians use communal sentiments for votes during elections.
 Communal conflicts not only create bitterness and a sense of insecurity but also can badly affect economic development . Communal riots can cause huge loss of public property and loss of lives
 Politically , they weaken the forces of democracy and damage the nation’s image outside the country.
 Socially, it threatens the unity of the country. If the people of a country are not united, it becomes easy for external forces to take advantage of communal forces. eg., Cross border terrorist attacks on India

Incidence of communal violence : Unfortunately our country has witnessed ugly scenes of communal riots, on many occasions
 Massive communal riots took place between the Hindus and the Muslims at the time of partition of India in 1947 ,
 There were Hindu Sikh riots in 1984 after the assassination of Indira Gandhi by a Sikh body guard.
 Again there was the communal riot after the demolition of Babri Masjid in 1992. The Ram Janmabhoomi - Babri issue has created a nationwide communal divide and threatens the unity and integrity of the country .
 The recent Gujarat riots after the Godhra issue has damaged our secular image . It also shows how communal sentiments are being exploited by the politicians.
 There are various attacks on churches by fanatic Hindus in Orissa
 MNS attacks on North Indians and Biharis stirring the sentiments of regionalism – “Maratha Manoos”
Causes of Communal Conflict:
 British Policy of Divide and Rule - Seeds of communalism were sown by the British by their Divide and Rule policy. They encouraged communal politics and voters were classified on the basis of their religion
 Economic Deprivation, insecurity – If a section of the society fail to achieve their goal or feel that they are discriminated and deprived of equal opportunities , they indulge in violent behavior – eg., MNS violence against the North Indians, Biharis.

 Struggle for power- Politicians use communal sentiments for retaining their power.
 Religion – Communalism is a weapon of religious fundamentalists

 Regional organisations : After Independence , many communal organisations like RSS, VHP, Bajrang Dal , Jamat-i-islam and Akali Dal have contributed to increasing communal feelings in the minds of people. In recent times Hindu communalism is on the rise, with BJP, VHP, Bajrang Dal, Shiv Sena propagating Hindutva -
 Political Rivalry- The Mandir – Masjid controversy is a symbolic expression of the political rivalry between two communities. The Muslim – Hindu rivalry has a long history


Remedial Measures

Several measures have been proposed to tackle communalism and its effect on society
 Removal of social inequality, economic exploitation and discrimination against minorities
 Strengthening secular values
 Effective control of religious tensions
 Easy and quick settlement of inter communal disputes.
 An awareness and awakening among the people
 Derecognise political parties which use religion for political purposes
 Punishment to Govt officers who are guilty of neglecting their duty to stop communal violence
 Media has an important role to play in reporting communal news and events with a sense of responsibility


The government, the political parties, the media and Indian citizens all must play their effective role in the fight against the challenge of communalism. There is no doubt that with the efforts of younger generation India can look forward to emerging as a great secular Nation.

Q. Human Rights : ( discuss the significance of UDHR in the context of Universal Human Rights)
Human Rights are generally defined as those rights which are inherent in our nature and without which we cannot live as human beings. These are rights an individual possesses by virtue of being a human being . Humans are born free and equal in dignity and right.
Evolution of Human Rights:
The roots of human rights can be seen in ancient times and scriptures eg., Veda, the Ten commandments, Teachings of Buddhism . Human rights originated from the idea of mercy, kindness, fairness and humanity. The ancient Greeks and Romans believed in Equality before law, equal respect for all, equal freedom of speech, the Right to vote , the right to justice, etc. Magna Carta, issued in 1215 included the rights of different sections of the society and justice for all
Human rights came to focus with black slavery, American freedom Revolution, French Revolution. A number of human rights violations like child labor, slavery, brutal working conditions etc were seen in the 19th century . There were horrible incidents of Human rights violations during the Second World War by the Nazis. The United Nations formed after the War attempted to make human rights universal . In 1945 the UN made a general declaration that no one in the world can be discriminated against on the basis of race, religion, language or sex.
UDHR ( Universal Declaration of human Rights)
On 10th December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights “ . The UN has since then committed itself to the promotion and protection of human rights.
Human rights can be broadly classified into
8. The Right to Physical and Mental Integrity – The right to life, liberty, security, freedom from torture, cruel and inhuman treatment, freedom from slavery, forced labor, arbitrary arrest etc
9. Freedom of conscience and Action – Freedom of opinion, religion, expression, Freedom of information, freedom to form associations, trade unions, freedom of movement etc
10. Right to Legal justice – Fair trial in courts, the Right to defend
11. Privacy and Family Rights
12. Political Rights – The right to vote and stand in election
13. Economic and social rights- The right to work, adequate standard of living, social security, the right to health services
14. Equality and non-discrimination
Right to Development , was adopted by the UN in 1986
Importance of UDHR :
 Human rights are moral , universal. It is a set of moral rules and it is binding on all the nations to follow the UDHR although it is not legal
 Serves as a common standard for all
 Makes violation an international concern
 Human rights allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence and talent. They also satisfy our spiritual and other needs
 It respects and protects basic dignity and human worth
 Respect for human rights is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
 It has Influenced constitution of many countries. – Fundamental Rights in our constitution is based on UDHR.
Significance of UDHR with reference to India
Our constitution provides for fundamental rights which are based on and inspired by UDHR. However there are several issues in the past and in the present which signifies the importance of UDHR
 Mass arrests of opposition leaders and mass sterilization program during the emergency period

 Even today women are victim of dowry, domestic violence, liquor, rape . Discrimination in work place, sexual harassment at work place violate the womens right to dignity and freedom. The low status of women in India is visible in cases of female foeticide.

 Discrimination based on caste and class exist in our society . Untouchability is still practiced in our society specially the rural India and there are cases of increased violence against the Dalits.
 Several projects have resulted in displacing people from their region and deprived them of their livelihood. eg Narmada Dam project , Although they may be resettled in other areas, there are issues of human rights
 Torture in Custody and custodial deaths , fake encounters, custodial rapes are reported from various states.
 Conditions in our prisons and the inhuman treatment of prisoners is a serious violation of human rights.

 Several farmers committing suicide raises question of Right to Live.

 Child labor is still prevalent in India. Children employed in homes and in commercial workplaces, are subjected to ill-treatment. The chaining of bonded child labour in the carpet industry near Varanasi so that they could not escape was reported. There are reports of Domestic child workers being tortured sometimes resulting in death.

 There has been increasing cases of child abuse, and more particularly child sexual abuse

 20 years after Bhopal tragedy, victims are still waiting for justice.
In the light of the above it is significant to note that we as a nation should understand the principles of UDHR. NHRC, and many human rights activists have been taking action on human rights issues as and when they are reported But a lot more needs to be done by all concerned . What is required is mass awareness and self regulation
Q Trace the Growth and Development of Womens Movement in India
Women in India have been discriminated since ages.
At one time in India - in the ancient Vedic period - there were equal rights between men and women. But in the later Vedic period , males oppressed females and treated them as their subordinates or similar to a lower caste. Women were considered lacking intellectual capacity , reasoning and rationality . Women were portrayed under the control and power of man – as a girl under the control of father, as a wife under the control of husband and as a widow under the control of son.
Issues of Women
 India is a patriarchal society, in which Indian women face oppressive gender bias. Discrimination against women exists even today either in society or at home or in work place, although the government and the women activists are continuously trying to improve the status of woman .
 “personal laws” of each specific religion, often conflict with the Indian Constitution, and goes against womens rights and power.
 Women’s participation in politics also is less
 The female-to-male ratio in India is 933 to 1000, due to female foeticides,
 No. of women working outside their home in offices is considerably less. Women take up lower paying, unskilled jobs with less job security than men. Even in agricultural jobs where the work of men and women are highly similar, women are still paid less for the same amount and type of work as men.
 Dropout rates of females from middle and primary schools is high and literacy levels are lower than men.
Growth of womens movement
1. Reform movements; The first phase of womens movement were initiated by men, and later joined by women. Some of the most influential men involved were: Dr Ambedkar, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshav Karve etc The efforts of these men were to abolish social evils like sati, the custom of child marriage, the disfiguring of widows, promoting women’s education and widow remarriage , obtaining legal rights for women to own property,
2. During the freedom struggle, Gandhiji encouraged women to join the freedom movement. Women-only organizations like All India Women's Conference (AIWC) emerged. Women were involved in issues relating to the women’s political participation, women’s voting rights, and leadership roles in political parties, . After independence in 1947, women were granted constitutional equality . There was provision for women’s upliftment through maternal health and child care provision (crθches), equal pay for equal work etc. The state adopted a supporting role towards women.
3. Women & personal Laws: In India, , the Hindu, Islamic, and other religious communities have their own personal laws. Some of the aspects of these laws are divorces, adoption, guardianship , inheritance etc. which are different in different personal laws. Women are differentiated depending on the personal laws:
Although Indian law considers all men and women equal , Muslim societies in some places do not treat women as equals.. The majority of Muslim women are never employed outside the home. The Muslim Personal Law overrides even the Indian Constitution.
A uniform civil code was proposed in the Constitution (Article 44 )for all citizens of India, However it has not yet been implemented by the states.
4. Women & Social Issues: The feminist movements highlighted aspects of women’s oppression such as inequality, dowry, rape, female foeticide , domestic violence , girl prostitution, etc .A no. of Activists, NGO’s and researchers started highlighting issues like stereotype portrayal of women in media and indecent portrayal of women . Organization like Stree Mukti Sangharsh (Women's Liberation Struggle) started promoting equality between men and women
The Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA), a union of women working as street vendors and rag-pickers and in home-based industries, established the first women's bank for poor women
These movements resulted in creating awareness about the issues. A no. of laws were formulated to prohibit female foeticide and indecent portrayal of women, against dowry deaths and domestic violence. Rape laws have been amended to include marital rape by the husband In 1986, the National Policy on Education (NPE) was created in India. The focus was on the empowerment of women through education
5. Women and Workplace: The National Commission for women is fighting for the cause of women at their workplace. i.e exploitation in terms of long working hours, low wages and sexual exploitation
6. Conclusion: These movements have created a lot of awareness among the women about their rights. Womens organizations and the government are working towards educating and empowering women in society and encouraging them to fight for their rights. Today women have started coming out of their homes and participating in politics, taking up professions which were earlier meant only for the men. ( flying planes, running buses, autos, trains etc) Womens Reservation Bill reserving 33% seats in parliament and state Assembly for women is a great step towards womens empowerment. But a lot is still to be done.
CONCEPT TESTING
1. Secularism: Secularism is a concept of separating the State from religion. It is something that has nothing to with religion. It means that government should exist separately from religion and religious beliefs. When we say we are secular it means we have the right to be free from religious rule and teachings, and freedom from government imposing religion upon the people.
India is a secular country. The preamble to our constitution makes it clear that India is a socialist, secular democratic Republic – it implies that every citizen of India has the freedom to practice their own religion and government policies and programs are never related to religion.. It means the government will not interfere with religious beliefs or activities of the citizens. In secular societies, political parties or religious orders are not expected to use their religion for political gains.
2. Silent Spring: Silent Spring is a book published in the US in the mid 1960’s warning people about the disastrous effects of pesticides and particularly DDT. It warned that indiscriminate use of the pesticide could kill hundreds of species of insects and harm human beings. The author Rachel Carson was an environmentalist .

DDT was the most powerful pesticide the world had ever known , was capable of killing hundreds of different kinds of insects at once.

The book describes how the pesticide enters the food chain and causes cancer and genetic disorders. The book describes how a courageous woman took on the chemical industry and raised important questions about the impact of human activities on nature .

As a result of the book and its reception, the Environmental protection Agency was established in 1970. DDT and other pesticides have been completely banned in the US. Several birds including eagles were thus saved from extinction.

The main theme of silent Springs was Man as a part of nature has a duty to protect nature from destruction. The silent Spring launched the environmental movement world wide.
3. Concept of Secession: Secession is the act of withdrawing from political unity. Eg., one of the states of India demanding separation from the Indian Union . There are several separatist movements in India mainly in the North East and the North west. The cause for secession is generally the discontent of the people with the existing government. They feel neglected and hence want to separate or due to military oppression as in the case of East Pakistan wanting to separate from Pakistan and formed Bangla desh.
Indian constitution does not allow Indian States to separate from the Indian Union. Secession movements in Nagaland and Sikkim have been suppressed by Military. However separation sentiments still run high in these states.
Secession movements were also active in Mizoram, Punjab ( as Khalistan) , Tripura and Tamil Nadu. They have died down due to military action and political agreements like the Mizo accord and the Assam Accord.
Secession is considered justified only if secessionists can create a viable state . Many feel that secession could be considered only to rectify grave injustice or in cases of oppression of ethnic or racial groups.
Major secessionist movements are currently ongoing in Russia, Spain, Canada, Nigeria, India, and Sri Lanka, among others, and these movements have had a strong impact on international security. The ongoing secessionist movement in Kashmir, for example, is a major threat to security in South Asia .
4. P O T A: POTA is Prevention of Terrorist Activities .POTA was an anti-terrorism law introduced by the government in 2002. The Act replaced previous laws , TADA and POTO.
The act was introduced to fight terrorism within the country of India and was to be applied against any person involved in terrorist activities. The act defined what a terrorist act and a terrorist is and grants special powers to the investigating authorities to deal with terrorism and terrorists.
To ensure certain powers were not misused and there are no human rights violations, specific safeguards were built into the act. Under the new law
 a suspect can be detained upto 180 days without the filing of charges in court
 the identities of witnesses need not be disclosed
 a confession made to the police can be treated as an admission of guilt. Under regular Indian law, a person can deny such confessions in court, but not under POTA.
5. Right to Information The Government runs on the money paid by the people as taxes. Therefore people have a right to know how the money is being used. In a democracy, people are the masters. Government’s responsibility is to serve the people. People have a right to know how they are being governed and how the tax payers money is spent . We have a representative democracy . We elect our representatives who then rule us. We therefore should have a right to question them on what decisions they take on our behalf and why such decisions are made.

The Right to information Act came into force in India on 12th October 2005. The Act extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
The law grants a right to the citizens
• To question their governments
• Inspect government records
• Take copies
• Participate in day-to-day governance
Government decisions, actions are no longer a secret. However any information which can affect the sovereignty and integrity of India and security of the State, foreign relations or lead to offence need not be disclosed by the Government under this Act.
6. Trade Union Trade Union or labor union is an organization of workers. The trade union through its leadership bargains with the employer on behalf of union members , negotiates wages, work rules, promotions, benefits , workplace safety and various other policy matters. Trade Union Movement is organized activities of workers to improve their working conditions.
In the early stages of industrial revolution when there were personal contacts between employers and the workers, there was no need for any organization to resolve disputes. But with more and more modernization , the personal touch was absent and the relations between employer and the employee came under stress. There were unfair labor practices – low wages, long working hours , unsafe working conditions, hire and fire policy etc. Workers reacted to these unfair practices by strikes, hunger strikes, bandhs, gheraos, demonstrations , mass casual leave etc.
Workers join the union because they believe that they can negotiate better pay, better working conditions, provide training for new skills and give general advice and support. There is a regular membership fee to be paid to the union . The union decides who may be a member of the union and elect their leader. Employer is generally not permitted to seek out another labor union .
7. Ozone Depletion; Ozone depletion is reduction of ozone layer in the earth’s stratosphere. Ozone layer protects the earth from sun’s ultraviolet rays . If the ozone layer is depleted by human action, it can have adverse effect on the planet.
OZONE Depletion was first discovered in the mid-1980s in Antarctica. . Scientists noticed a decrease in ozone level in the stratosphere, which caused a massive hole in the ozone layer right above Antarctica . The discovery of this “hole” would mean more UV rays of sun reaching the earth . It could cause skin cancer, affect human immune system and crop growth, Ozone in the upper atmosphere absorbs UV radiation from the sun preventing it from reaching the earth where it could cause harm to humans, crops and other problems. Ozone depletion will cause climate change , change in wind pattern , and exposure to UV light will cause skin cancer, cataracts, change in life cycle of plants disrupting the food chain.
The most leading cause of ozone depletion is the production and emission of CFCs, chlorofluorocarbons.. CFCs float to the upper atmosphere where the suns heat breaks them releasing chlorine atoms. Chlorine destroys ozone.
Many countries have called for the end of CFC production Companies are finding substitutes for CFCs, and people in general are becoming more aware of the dangers of ozone depletion.
8. Positive discrimination
Positive discrimination means treating one person more favourably than another on the ground of that individual’s sex, race, age, marital status or sexual orientation. While, in this situation, the individual’s characteristic is being taken into account to benefit that individual, typically because that individual belongs to a group that is often treated unfairly or under-represented in the workforce, this is nevertheless unlawful discrimination. An exception to this principle is in the context of disability discrimination where it is permissible and, in some circumstances even necessary, to treat disabled employees more favourably than non-disabled staff. Another exception is where positive discrimination can be justified as a “genuine occupational requirement” or “qualification”.
In India places are reserved for those of the lowest castes under the Ninth Schedule of the Indian constitution in state-supported employment, and in educational and political institutions at all levels. Supporters of the system see this as the dominant groups in society paying off a historical debt, and as an enabling process that will lead to more integrated societies. Critics point out that the system negates the principles of both equality and merit, and further, that it permits whole sections of society to avoid competition, which in turn reinforces prejudices.
9. Right to development
The declaration for the right to development is the outcome of the study of developmental levels of states all over the world. Studies conducted by the UN have shown that there are imbalances in the levels of development between and within nations and hence it is necessary to uplift the weaker and deprived sections of society such as women, children, tribals, and those affected by social practices and norms.

Relevant recent issue: Aaja Nachale lyrics

“In India every issue gets politicized”

“Previously it was degrading to make handbags and shoes… today it is hi – fi”

Every individual has a natural urge to maintain self respect and improve the standard of living. Life is worth living not only when a person hats access to the basic necessities of life but it also implies living with dignity. This requires opportunities for every individual to actualize his or her own potential and enhance the quality of life.
The DRD was adopted on December 4 1986 by the UN General Assembly and became a more contemporary right in the List of human rights. It added a new dimension to human rights both for the individual and society and made it obligatory for every state to develop the life of people within in the Nation.
All projects and programmes should take steps to eliminate the massive violations of human rights of people affected by racial discrimination, foreign domination, displacement, and threats against national unity. Development must become an inseparable part of every individual’s life by eradicating social injustice and promoting peace and security. The right to development therefore includes:
1) The Right to Self Determination (Kashmir? Khalistan? Nandigram?)
2) Education
3) A pollution free environment
4) Rehabilitation
The World Conference on Human Rights at Vienna in 1993 reaffirmed the Right to Development as an integral part of Universal Human Rights and stated that “All Countries must co operate to bring about equitable economic relations and create a social climate that will enable every person to have an active role in Development and enjoy Human Rights”.
10. Organized crime
"Organized Crime" means crime which is of a conspiratorial nature and that is either of an organized nature and which seeks to supply illegal goods and services such as narcotics, prostitution, loan sharking, gambling, and pornography, or that, through planning and coordination of individual efforts, seeks to conduct the illegal activities of arson for profit, hijacking, insurance fraud, smuggling, operating vehicle theft rings, or systematically encumering the assets of a business for the purpose of defrauding creditors.
Organized crime:
1. Has no political goals
2. Is hierarchical
3. Has a limited or exclusive membership
4. Constitutes a unique subculture
5. Perpetuates itself
6. Exhibits a willingness to use illegal violence
7. Is monopolistic
8. Is governed by explicit rules and regulations
11. CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women):
The concept of Human Rights was subjected to criticism with regard to its universality by feminist thinkers specially in Asian Countries. The feminist thinkers point out that many cultural practices in different parts of he World are oppressive to Women and as such the UDHR has ignored gender related issues in a patriarchal society. Article 16 denies Women the right to Walk out of violent homes and in fact negates Article 3, which is Right to Life, Article 4 – Right against Servitude and
Article 5 – Right against Torcher.
Article 16 almost legally enforces the confinement of Women to the house in order to protect the family. The UN Commission on the status of Women was established in 1946 to monitor the situation of Women and protect their rights. It submitted its report after 30 years.
The convention was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1979 on December 18th and became an International treaty in 1981. More than 40 countries objected to some of the articles of the convention due to Political, Cultural or Religious reasons. The CEWDO basically emphasizes the equality of sexes and seeks to remove Gender Bias. Political and Civil Right of Women are enumerated in great detail and due respect is given to Cultural Factors which affect gender relations. It states that the role of Women in Pro Creation should not be a basis for discrimination and that the responsibility for bringing up children should be shared by both parents.

Issue: Videocon does not appoint Women at higher levels at all!
Socio economic factors should not restrain the life and liberty of Women and the Girl Child should be educated. The media must play an important role in eliminating stereo typed concepts of Women and create awareness that Women’s issues are actually Human Rights Issues.
Pollution
Undesirable or detrimental change in a natural system or unfavorable alteration of our surrounding through direct or indirect effects of changes in the energy patterns, radiation levels, chemical and physical constitution and overpopulation of organisms. Causes are mostly man-made or anthropogenic- Pollution affects humans directly as well as indirectly.

Characteristics of pollution:
Natural and artificial
Long distance
Persistent and long lasting
Biological concentration
Air pollution: Agents; Sulphur oxides, carbon oxides, hydrocarbons, particulate matter

Green House Effect: A natural phenomenon that traps sun’s radiation within the earth’s atmosphere- Higher concentration of Green House gases means warmer climate

Green House Gases:
Carbon di Oxide: ( Greatest impact- due to deforestation and burning of fossil fuel- Level increased 27 times since mid 18th century

Nitrous oxide; because of fertilizer use and chemical production such as nylon

CFC and halons: CFC from Refrigerators, aerosol sprays, air conditioners and latter in fire fighting equipment


Methane: when bacteria have accesss to organic matter-rice/paddy fields, swamps, garbage dumps, landfills- Increased 100% since 1765,

Ozone: consisting of 3 atoms of Oxygen-Shields earth from sun’s UV rays -Sunlight reacting with automobile emissions and water vapour causes its depletion.-- Major component of smog- Has a high rate of breakdown- CFCs have caused hole in ozone over Antarctica
Anthropogenic greenhouse gases are increasing global average temperatures.

Acid rain: deposition on earth of the dilute solutions of acids (sulphuric and nitric) with rainfall. Sulphuric is from coal and oil used in industry, smelting. Nitric is from automobile exhaust, chemical fertilizer factories)-Acid deposition often turns up days later and 100s of Kms from the source of emission

Ozone Depletion: Ozone layer lies mostly in the stratosphere, 12-15 kms above the earth’s surface. It protects plants and animals from much of sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation by filtering-This protective layer has depleted and a hole caused over Antarctica because of CFCs and halons.

Kyoto protocol:
Legally binds nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions- came into force on Feb 6, 2005- Cuts are not uniform-US and Australia did not sign as Bush said it would damage American economy; Major industrializing economies like India and China were not covered by its provisions until 2012, the logic being that developing nations should not be made to pay a price for late industrialization- Countries can buy “emission credits” (earned by reducing emissions below the mandated levels) from countries that do not need them to stay below their emission quotas .There is a provision for CDM which encourages investment in developing countries for promoting transfer of environment-friendly technologies.

Global warming: Also known as green house effect. Sunlight enters earth’s atmosphere and after hitting the earth, gets radiated back into the atmosphere and is absorbed by certain gases. This heats the atmosphere and warms the earth’s surface. In normal process this is essential for life on earth, but today there is an increase in the greenhouse gases due to a no. of factors(such as deforestation, chemical and nuclear wastes etc- see elsewhere)This increase in atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has serious implications on surface warming and climatic change (See below)

Implications of Global warming: Current Scenario: The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its recent report(2005) says that world has become warmer. Acc to it, average global surface temperature has risen by 0.6 degrees C since 1900 with much of that rise coming in the 1990s which is probably the warmest decade in 1000 years.(The 6 warmest years in global temperature are: 1995, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1988, 1983- these years saw fires in Yellow stone National park, flooding in Bangladesh, record number of hurricanes, drought in south east US)).The IPCC also found that the snow cover has decreased by 10% since 1960s and lake and rivers in the Northern hemisphere are frozen over about 2 weeks less each year than they were earlier. Mountain glaciers in non-polar regions have also seen a notable retreat in the 20th century. Average sea level has risen between 0.1 to 0.2 metres since 1900..Antrcica’s largest glacier has lost 45 meters in the last decade and ice shelves have disintegrated.
Future: Experts predict wetter monsoons in subtropics,, more floods ,intense winter snows, storms, heat waves and droughts.; 1.4 to 5.8 degrees rise in global surface temperature over the next 100 years. Decrease in sea ice, rise in sea level will lead to coastal erosion, loss of beaches, increase salinity in rivers, animal extinction, disappearance of low lying areas like Bangladesh, Florida, Maldives.( 1 degree rise in temperature is calculated to increase sea level by 10-20 cm) Other studies are even more ominous: World Wildlife Fund predicts polar ice melting in summer as early as in 20 years with polar bears being pushed close to extinction.

2b) Explain the meaning and significance of sustainable development and bring out the conflict between development and sustainability. (12)
Sustainable Development:

1987- Brundtland Commission or UN commission on Environment and Development (UNED)-“ That development which meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their requirements”- Balance between exploitation and conservation: 5 principles:

• Ecological harmony: (man and hi surroundings- humans, oceans, forests, wild life, habitat, biodiversity)
• Maximum ecological efficiency: (Judicious exploitation of minerals and other non renewable resources, increased use of renewable energy, biodegradable waste)
• Conservation of natural resources: (developmental process can be disastrous-Industries, urbanization, deforestation, over exploitation of resources, large dams leading to flooding)
• Local self- reliance: (Use of local resources to satisfy local needs using decentralized local plans- an idea propounded by Schumacher in his landmark book ‘Small is Beautiful’)
• Equity with social justice; Extending fruits of development to all people-development often leads to displacement, destroys markets for indigenous products,
Sustainable development would mean undertaking developmental activities and projects, which would work in close harmony with Nature and without disrupting local social system now and in future. In order to be sustainable development has to improve the well being of societies, enable every one to participate in the developmental process and the benefits of development should be shared by all people and all countries. Besides, improvements in human well being should be extended over many generations.The future generations also have the same claim on the fruits of development as well as the earth’s resources as the current one does as this earth is our common heritage.

Criticisms/ Problems/ Issues with SD:
• The term is self contradictory as all development requires consumption
• There are limits set by natural resource availability to the process of development and so there can be no sustainable development
• North-South divide
• Who should bear the cost of SD?
• Disproportionate burden on less developed countries
• Technological availability, transferability and economic feasibility of SD
• Ethics of preventing Less Developed Countries (LDCs) from the developmental course while the west itself developed unmindful of sustainability question
• The problem is not the LDCs’ over population but over-consumption of the North- in terms of energy use (transport, for example), paying no heed to renewable resources and non polluting technology, consumerism, waste produced, habit of throwing away products without recycling or reusing ,
• Smokescreen for west’s over-consumption

Carrying capacity: An ecology related term, which means the point at which human use of an ecosystem can reach a maximum without causing degradation. It is the threshold point of ecological stability. People like Malthus believed in the concept of a limited carrying capacity but modern technology has continuously expanded the carrying capacity of our ecosystem.


3(a) (i) Discuss the nature/ characteristics of human rights
Definition: “Those conditions of social life without which no human being can seek in general to be himself at his best”-Harold Laski in the Grammar of Politics

Those moral rights which are owed to each man and woman solely by reason of being human.

Universal: Human Rights are “rights of all people at all times and in all situations” according to Maurice Cranson- Pertains to all people at all times simply because they are human beings- Govts are not entitled to apply HR as they think fit
- Not conferred on anyone but inherent
Not dependent on any authority or legal system to exist

Individual: HRs are the rights of individuals to meet the needs and purposes of individuals.

Paramountcy: Something of which no one can be deprived of without grave affront to justice- Inalienable- Minimum strong moral rights of which no man or woman can be deprived by govt or society whether by arbitrary fiat or by law

Practicability: HR claims can obviously never be made to what is physically impossible (e-g to live for ever)

Enforceability: By the International community

Basic, fundamental and natural.- Derived from principle of natural law- moral and universal- Not earned or acquired on the basis of special positions or specific contracts

Importance of RTI as a significant step in ensuring accountability(Also see elsewhere in the part on accountability)

Gives access to info- Citizens have a right to ask for and get information and access official records -State can be held accountable to people in a number of ways - Gives citizens the right to get info on rules, expenditures undertaken, funds available under different schemes, contracts given, muster rolls of public works undertaken by Panchayats, reasons for taking decisions, copies of govt orders, audit reports, agreements etc-Most activities of govt can be monitored by citizens.
Pins responsibility on particular official who can be held personally accountable for certain decisions and lapses.
Promotes transparency and reduces corruption by pinning down responsibility on the concerned official who has to furnish the info within stipulated time.

Can be used by any citizen- At minimal cost- makes govt alert

Ordinary citizen is entitled to seek info which had hitherto been demanded only by MPs and MLAs on the floor of the house

Reduces corruption- Impacts policy decisions - Empowers citizens to question or correct lapses and wrongs

Ensures better governance and converts purely electoral democracy into a truly participatory democracy in which elected govt is accountable to the electorate.

5(a) Right to self determination
Self-Determination : Consists of the legal and political processes and structures through which people gain and maintain control over their culture, society and economy. - Principle embodied in the UN Charter and in both the ICCPR and ICESCR. Common Article 1(1) of these covenants provides that “All people have the right of SD. By virtue of that right, they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development”

The UN supported the independence of overseas colonies in Africa, Asia and elsewhere on the basis of this principle but when countries gained independence from their overseas colonial rulers, they refused the RSD to people in their own territories by citing the Salt water test.
.
No international legal definition of people who are entitled to RSD- the term is generally used to describe a population which shares the following characteristics: 1) A common historical tradition; 2 ) Distinctive culture; 3) A shared language; 4) A shared religion; and 5) A traditional territorial connection.

According to a 1970 UN General Assembly Declaration, implementation of the RSD need not conflict with the territorial sovereignty or political unity of a state. According to the Declaration, RSD may take various forms: Forming a federation with an existing state, integration into an existing state as an autonomous region or any other political status as freely determined by the people short of secession.
(The right to secede is an option of the last resort, only justified by serious govt violations of human rights, persistent discrimination and other grave injustices. If an indigenous people or ethnic minority live in a democratic state that enables them to participate effectively in the political process and economy and to practice their religion and culture, then they have a RSD and have no cause to secede.)

Today many indigenous communities throughout the world, such as American Indians and Australian aborigines are claiming RSD. In India, tribal, linguistic and regional groups have made such demands. In some cases amicable settlements through negotiation have been arrived at as in the case of Mizoram and Jharkhand: in others continued conflicts remain as in the cases of Kashmir, Bodoland and Nagaland
.
Use of repressive laws in Indian democracy
Repressive laws: Those Acts or ordinances which undermine the fundamental rights of the citizens -
Since 1950, legislatures have been enacting draconian Laws to deal with law and order situation in the country- Both Centre and state govts have the right to pass their own laws
Reasons: Defence, foreign affairs, security of the country or the state, maintenance of public order, maintenance of supplies and services essential to the community.
A few examples with one or 2 lines on each: Preventive Detention Act, 1950
Armed Forces Special powers Act, 1958 which allows governors to declare an areas “disturbed” – when an area is so declared, armed forces can arrest without warrant, warn and shoot to kill, enter and search premises without warrant
MISA, 1971; COFEPOSA, 1974; Maintenance of Essential Commodities Act,, NSA, 1980; TADA, 1985; POTA, 2002; MCOCA1999
Leads to violation of personal freedom- Can be misused against political opponents, media, innocent people

5(d) Homosexual movement
Wide meaning: LSBT –Though large in number and from all over the world and across professions and educational and social strata and classes, their actual number is unknown. Social stigma- Continue to be discriminated and persecuted. In response, a social movement in several countries.

First movement founded in Germany in 1897 but homosexuals were crushed by Nazis – they used the pink triangle as a cherished symbol.
. First homosexual organization in US was founded in Chicago in 1924. In 1950s and 60s, homosexuals got involved in other movements.
The contemporary homosexual movement began in Greenwich village in New York city on 28 June 1969 when police raided Stonewall inn, a gay bar. The patrons locked the police inside the bar and rioted and marched through the streets for 3 days and nights. Gay liberation groups appeared in USA, Canada and Europe.
Coming out of the closet by 1990s and forming organizations in many nations, Lesbian organizations have also started.
The movement has met with resistance and opposition. In mid 1996 US Supreme court guaranteed equal rights. Same sex marriages are still controversial. In 1993, Clinton considered issuing an executive order against gay discrimination. There is a compromise: ‘Don’t ask, don’t tell’ In some places gay prejudice has led to violence. Yet the movement continues to spread and seeks to break stereotypes in over 70 countries. Scandinavian countries and several US states have recognized gay marriages .

Issues; Religious: church terms it against the will of God / Legal / Freedom of choice: - human rights issue-Issue of sexual orientation, not one of choice / -persecution and isolation in gay communities

In India as elsewhere, social ostracism and persecution/ Sec 377 of Indian Penal Code makes it an unnatural offence punishable with 7 years to life imprisonment, -Repeal of 377 is a major demand as it discriminates against sexual minorities; comes in the way of voluntary agencies working in the area of HIV-AIDS. Homosexuals are a high-risk group but they cannot be educated or helped with information on AIDS because of 377.



States involved in the NBA.
States involved in the Narmada Bachao Andolan.
• Gujarat
• MP
• Maharashtra
Some civil rights.
• Right to life, Liberty, and security of person
• Legal recognition as a person
• Equality before law
• Prohibition from torture
• Prohibition from degrading treatment
• Prohibition from slavery
• Right to remedy
• Presumption of innocence
• Freedom of speech, conscience


Betty Friedan (Born 1921), author of the landmark book, The Feminine Mystique (1963) died on 6 Feb 2006. Her book sparked a movement for re-evaluation of women’ role in American society and is widely credited with laying the foundation of modern feminism. In 1996 she co-founded NOW (National Organisation for Women), a civil rights group dedicated to achieving equality of opportunity for women. As a president of NOW she led the campaign to end sex-classified employment notices, or greater representation of women in govt, for child-care centers for working mothers and legalized abortion.


‘Organised crime’ means work of a group that regulates relations between criminal enterprises involved in a host of illegal activities- a secret activity that generally evades law enforcement- Intimidates witnesses and even takes over legitimate businesses – cartels operate globally- Drugs, smuggling, human trafficking, etc ( Must see notes on MCOCA for an official definition)

Corruption: Acc to Indian Penal code, any gratification other than legal remuneration as a motive or reward for showing favour or disfavour to a person, or rendering any service or disservice. It means accepting illegal gratification and deliberate misuse of one’s position.
Cooperative corruption: When the corruptor voluntarily offers a bribe to a corrupt individual to get a favour or service.
In extorted corruption, a corrupt official extracts or forces a citizen to give a bribe in order to avoid harassment, delay or persecution. The policeman’s ‘Hafta’ collection, the gangster or slumlord’s ‘fee’, or protection money , speed money paid to govt officials not to hold up or delay movement of files are all examples of extorted corruption.

Comptroller and Auditor General(CAG) is the head of the Indian audit and accounts department. He is responsible for compiling the accounts of the Union, all the states and union territories .He audits all expenditures from the consolidated fund of India. The report of his audit is presented to president / governor who then presents it to both houses of parliament/ legislature. His task is to see whether in the union govt and each state and UT money disbursed was legally available for the purpose it was spent. Appointed by President of India for 6 years-built-in safeguards to ensure his impartiality-he can be removed from office only on grounds of proven misbehaviour or incapacity by 2/3 majority of both houses and Not allowed to take up office with centre or states after retirement.


Right to Development is an inalienable right by virtue of which every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized. People are active participants and beneficiaries individually and collectively. It is inalienable as it can’t be bargained away. It means active, free and meaningful participation by all in the process of development and fair distribution of the benefits of development

1(1)Environmental Degradation: Act or process of devaluing of and damage to the environment by natural or anthropogenic causes; in other words, rendering the environment a less conducive habitat for the living world due to excessive intervention of man.- 4 major areas of concern are: Damage to marine environment; ozone depletion; Smog and air pollution; Vanishing forests or deforestation
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1(2) Why is UDHR called universal?
-Adopted by all member countries without any negative vote or dissenting note- Sets common standard for all human beings and nations

1(3) Briefly indicate what CEDAW deals with.

CEDAW(1979): Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women;” - Calls upon state parties to condemn discrimination against women and pass appropriate laws. It also calls for positive discrimination in favour of women to achieve equality; take appropriate measures for political rights equal to men in terms of right to vote, represent and participate in Govt.; prevent stereotyping in books, right to work, social security benefits, prohibit dismissal because of pregnancy or maternity, equal pay for equal work, right to decide n number and spacing of children.
(Defines discrimination as “any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women ….. of human rights and fundamental freedoms in political, social, civil or any other field”)


1(4) 2 examples of secession
Bangladesh from Pakistan
East Timor from Indonesia
Disintegration of Russia
Chechnya from Russia
Demand for Khalistan

1(5) Major Trade Unions operating in India
AITUC (ALL INDIA TRADE UNION CONGRESS)
INTUC (INDIAN NATIONAL TU CONGRESS)
CITU (CENTRE FOR INDIAN TRADE UNIONS)
BHARATIYA MAZDOOR SABHA
All India bank Employees Association
National Federation for Railway Employees

1(6) Issues highlighted by NBA
Poor and inadequate Rehabilitation
Increase in height of dam leading to loss of livelihood and social networks
Displacement: original and then due to increase in height of dam
Large dams and resultant social-human problems

1(7) Hurdles in passing women’s Reservation Bill
Male members of parliament stalling the passing of the Bill in spite of it being introduced again and again
Caste quotas within women’s quota demanded by some parties
Argument that only those women who have politically powerful husbands/fathers will benefit “Beevi-Beti brigade”
Argument that only urban educated women will benefit

1(8) Problems faced by tribal movements in India(Must See elsewhere for full text)
Absence of leaders of all-India stature
Geographically Scattered
Lack of cultural and linguistic homogeneity
Politically unorganized and economically weak

1(9) 2 Indian states significantly affected by Naxal activities currently:
Andhra Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Jharkhand
Orissa
Some backward districts of Maharashtra

1(10 )What is the difference between cooperative and extorted corruption?
Cooperative corruption: When the corruptor voluntarily offers a bribe to a corrupt individual to get a favour or service.
In extorted corruption, a corrupt official extracts or forces a citizen to give a bribe in order to avoid harassment, delay or persecution. The policeman’s ‘Hafta’ collection, the gangster or slumlord’s ‘fee’, or protection money, speed money paid to govt officials not to hold up or delay movement of files are all examples of extorted corruption.

Right to Self-Determination
(MUST elaborate points on the basis of classroom lectures)

What is self determination?
It consists of the political and legal structures through which people gain and maintain control over their culture, society and economy. It is a principle of international law, established under Art.55 of UN as well as under International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and International Covenant on Social, Economic and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).

The following conditions can form the basis for a population to seek the Right to self determination: Shared (or common) historical tradition, ethnic or cultural distinctiveness, language, religion or traditional territorial connection.

In India tribal, linguistic and regional groups have made such demands. In some cases amicable settlements through negotiation have been arrived at as in the case of Mizoram and Jharkhand: in others continued conflicts as in the cases of Kashmir, Bodoland and Nagaland


Self-Determination consists of the legal and political processes and structures through which people gain and maintain control over their culture, society and economy. It is a principle embodied in the UN Charter and in both the ICCPR and ICESCR. Common Article 1(1) of these covenants provides that “All people have the right of SD. By virtue of that right, they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development”

The UN supported the independence of overseas colonies in Africa, Asia and elsewhere on the basis of this principle. However, according to UN, this right is restricted only to those countries which are separated by salt water i-e by application of the “salt water Test” (“Salt water Test “limits the RSD to colonized countries that exist across the oceans from the colonizing country and thus protects the territorial integrity of existing states.

Although there is no international legal definition of people who are entitled to RSD, the term is generally used to describe a population which shares the following characteristics: 1) A common historical tradition; 2 )Distinctive culture; 3) A shared language; 4) A shared religion; and 5) A traditional territorial connection. Today many indigenous communities throughout the world, such as American Indians and Australian aborigines are claiming RSD.

According to a 1970 UN General Assembly Declaration, implementation of the RSD need not conflict with the territorial sovereignty or political unity of a state. According to the Declaration, RSD may take various forms: Forming a federation with an existing state, integration into an existing state as an autonomous region or any other political status as freely determined by the people short of secession.

The right to secede is an option of the last resort, only justified by serious govt violations of human rights, persistent discrimination and other grave injustices. If an indigenous people or ethnic minority live in a democratic state that enables them to participate effectively in the political process and economy and to practice their religion and culture, then they have a RSD and have no cause to secede.

Examples of secession in recent times:
• Dissolution of Soviet Union,
• Chechnya from Russia
• Dissolution of Yugoslavia,
• Separation of East Pakistan from West Pakistan to form Bangladesh,
• Separation of East Timor from Indonesia
• Demand for Khalistan
Examples of Self determination within an existing state are:
• Italy’s five special autonomous regions with extensive local powers defined by the constitution- Each of these regions has unique “non-Italian” culture, being dominated by German / French/ Slovene speaking people or have cultural and historical characteristics that have justified extensive powers being delegated to regional authorities for decision making;
• Ancestral territory of indigenous people in Panama
• In India tribal, linguistic and regional groups have made such demands. In some cases amicable settlements through negotiation have been arrived at as in the case of Mizoram and Jharkhand: in others continued conflicts remain as in the cases of Kashmir, Bodoland and Nagaland

CRIMINALIZATION OF POLITICS

ENTRY OF CRIMINALS OR ANTI SOCIAL elements into representative bodies through the electoral process.
Commission of criminal offences while holding public office Since 1967 elections- Challenge to political system.

Initially help was being taken by politicians from criminals for mutual benefit (proxy voting, booth capturing, politics of coercion, Now brazen. Entering politics offers protection. Winning by big margins and turning politicians. Kidnapping and murdering candidates, horse trading -Some fighting elections from inside jails.- Gun running, gambling and extortion from inside jails.- Cuts across party lines.

Causes:
Money and muscle power in elections
Expensive election campaigns,
Inadequate legal system
Weak police force
Local mafia seen as protector

DP Yadav, Pappu Yadav, Shibu Soren, Arun Gawli, Raja Bhaiyya, Phoolan Devi
Relatives of politicians getting away with crime: e-g Jessica Lal case
Suggested electoral code of banning not taken seriously-Political parties interpreting this to cover only those who have been actually convicted.

Remedies:
CEC for ban
Parties should not look at winnability but integrity and background of candidates
Public funding of elections
Vohra Committee indiction not heeded.
Transparent system
Speedy and exemplary punishment
Inculcating values.

Reservation Policy:

A set of measures adopted by the government in favour of certain disadvantaged social categories, the purpose of which is to rectify the inequalities and discrimination that afflict them. There are several groups in the World, which have been given such positive discrimination for instance the blacks in USA (affirmative action). Women in Scandinavia are given special privileges. But in no other country is the system as widespread as it is in India. In the last few years, this positive discrimination has been extended to include women in the ‘quota’ system.

The 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution reserves seats for Women upto 33% at the Local Body Level. (This year, the Mayor in Mumbai had to be a Woman). Surely Women are a disadvantaged minority in India and need help to raise their status. The focus should be on their strength rather than their suffering and therefore, Political Rights Should be accompanied by education and economic upliftment. The problem however is that with such cases, a completely incompetent candidate may come up.
Article 15 of the Indian Constitution prohibits any discrimination on the basis of creed, race, or caste. Article 16 conforms equality of all Citizens and Article 17 Abolishes Untouchablity, however the Constitution stipulates that the State has the right to adopt various measures in favour of ‘backward Classes’ so that they can benefit from these measures to promote their economic interests. The Constitution recognizes 3 Categories of the Population as Backward:

1) The Ex Untouchables (Scheduled Castes – 18% of India’s Population)
2) Scheduled Tribes (7% of India’s Population) – Physically isolated Tribes (Hill and Forest Tribes); Tribes do not have a caste system among them.
3) O. B. C – Other Backward Classes (most controversial – ill defined and ambiguous category because each state is free to decide which castes are covered and its size varies from region to region)

The advantages granted to the SC’s can be grouped under 3 categories:
1) Reserved seats in legislative bodies, important jobs in government, places in universities.
2) Scholarships, loans, land grants, medical care
3) Special Measures to be undertaken by the state such as campaigns against untouchability, bonded labour

Reservation in Legislative Bodies: In the legislative assemblies, the number of reserved seats is proportional to the % of untouchables in the overall population. The electoral system presents a certain paradox since in many cases, untouchable candidates in reserved constituencies are elected by a majority of non untouchables and most of the untouchables do not have an opportunity to vote since they are not registered in the reserved constituency. Eg. Cuffe Parade constituency in Mumbai.

In the area of education, most of the efforts have been concentrated on higher education since elementary education is free and open to all but in fact few untouchables complete their elementary education and fewer still enrol in medicine or applied sciences.
Reservation in Jobs: Most Dalits are concentrated primarily in the least prestigious government departments i.e. they are mainly class III and class IV employees such as clerks, sweepers, scavengers, peons. In fact, in certain menial jobs, they areas high as 80% and there is a clear under representation of SC’s in the higher-level jobs. As far as the bulk of the scheduled castes are concerned, reservations are only a means to alleviate their poverty and oppression; something that they have suffered for centuries. Preferential treatment in employment, education and government service has created a certain amount of consciousness of rights among them and they have become organised as they demand social justice. The system of positive discrimination however has created a controversy because the state, which is the largest employer encourages a welfare mentality. There is little disagreement that the disadvantaged sections of the population should be given special privileges but there is little agreement about who is deserving of this help, what form the help should take and what is the efficacy and propriety of what the government has done.

Critics of this system feels that reservation kills initiative and most of the scheduled castes have been reduced to a mass of beggars waiting for crumbs of bread that the government throws at them however, backwardness in India is defined in terms of caste and many of the backward castes use historical disadvantages to claim benefits from the system even though now they are well off. They have become attached to these measures and have a vested interest in claiming special privileges and reservations so that they form a ‘creamy layer’. This has created resentment among the upper castes especially in the villages where caste atrocities have increased.

The reservation policy was meant to be self-liquidating as a transitional arrangement is now in danger of ossifying into a permanent arrangement. The system of positive discrimination poses as many problems as it solves. In the 21st century, the majority of SC’s do not regard themselves as impure or believe that their status is assigned at birth because of their past karma.

The scheduled castes want a better life for their children and want to live with dignity. On the one hand they are still victims of prejudice and many of the so called westernized urban Indians exhibit an age old hatred for these groups. At the same time, the system of reservation continues to stigmatize them and alienates them from the rest of society.

The Mandal Commission was appointed in 1978 just after the emergency when Morarji Desai was the Prime Minister of India. It conducted a socio educational survey in the country and determined 11 indicators as criteria for defining socio economic and educational backwardness. It listed more than 3000 communities as backward and this population constituted 52% of India’s population. Accordingly it recommended 27% reservation for OBC’s, 49.5% for SC’s and ST’s. It submitted its report in 1980 by which time the Congress Government was back in Power. The Mandal Commission Report was kept in cold storage for 10 years. In 1989, VP Singh became the Prime Minister of India. He decided to implement the Mandal Commission Report. This led to widespread violence all over India – especially in the North. The Supreme Court was moved for grant of a state for implementation of the Mandal Commission Report and VP Singh had to resign.

Today the Mandal Commission suggestion is limited only to employment and not to promotions. The creamy layer should not be entitled to the concessions.
Contemporary Issues Notes
Climate Change
‘Greenhouse’ gases emitted by mankind are rapidly warming the Earth, causing changes in the global climate that will have increasingly severe environmental, economic and social impacts over the coming decades. ‘Greenhouse’ gases emitted by mankind are rapidly warming the Earth, causing changes in the global climate that will have increasingly severe environmental, economic and social impacts over the coming decades.

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol is an important first step towards limiting greenhouse gas emissions, but a much more ambitious international agreement involving all major emitters will be needed for the period from 2013.

The Earth is becoming rapidly warmer. Twelve of the 13 hottest years on record have occurred since 1995. The vast majority of the world’s leading climate experts attribute this warming mainly to a build-up of ‘greenhouse’ gases (GHG) emitted by human activities, in particular the burning of fossil fuels — coal, oil and gas — and the destruction of forests. Greenhouse gases are so called because they trap the sun’s heat in the atmosphere in the same way as the glass of a greenhouse.

This man-made warming is causing discernible climatic and environmental changes, such as more frequent extremes of weather, rising sea levels, and melting glaciers and polar ice. In the longer term these changes threaten to cause serious damage to our economies and the environment we depend on, putting the
lives of millions of people in danger and causing the extinction of animal and plant species.

There is considerable scientific evidence that the risk of irreversible and possibly catastrophic environmental changes, such as unstoppable melting of polar land ice or Arctic tundra, will greatly increase if global warming reaches 2° C or more above the pre-industrial temperature (equivalent to around 1.2°C above today’s level). By 2005 the average global temperature was 0.76° C above the preindustrial level, according to the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which brings together the world’s leading climatologists. And the IPCC projects further global warming of 1.8°-4° C this century, and in the worst case as much as 6.4° C, unless the international community acts to cut GHG emissions.

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Environmental Degradation may be defined as “An undesireable and excessive addition of some substances to air, water and soil, which adversely affect and alter the original, natural quality of the environment.
The two forms environmental degradation
• Physical or Natural :-
• Due to soil erosion
• Landslide
• Degradation due to volcanoes and earthquakes
• Floods, droughts and famine
• Desertification
• Due to human actions :-
• Population explosion
• High generation of waste material
• Human activities : primary, secondary, tertiary commercial activities
• Industrialization
• Deforestation
• Environmental degradation due to agricultural activities
• Industrial activities
• Consumerism
• Consumerism is related to the constant purchasing of new goods, with little attention to their true need, durability, product origin, or the environmental consequences of their manufacture and disposal.
• It is driven by huge sums spent on advertising designed to create both a desire to follow trends, and a personal feeling of satisfaction based on acquisition
• To grab market share by providing that little ‘extra’ has led to extensive collaborative research between detergent makers and specialty chemical companies.
• New chemicals are synthesized and added to detergents, without evaluating their safety.
• Broadly, synthetic detergents are known to be corrosive, toxic, slow to biodegrade and contribute to the growing levels of eutrophication in waterbodies.
• Detergent laden effluent harms closed waterbodies, persistent toxins may inhibit microbial activity thereby causing even biodegradable chemicals like surfactants to bio-accumlate.
• India faces two major challenges; first, the growing detergent use and second, inadequate sewage treatment facilities.
• In contrast to the west where most phosphorus from sewage is recovered during wastewater treatment, in India inefficient treatment facilities means that whatever phosphates are released from washing directly reach the waterbodies. So more the detergents, greater the pollution load in India’s waterbodies.
• Pollution:-
Pollution can be defined as unwanted or detrimental changes in a natural system.
Usually pollution is associated with the presence of toxic chemicals in some large quantity, but pollution can also be caused by the presence of excess quantities of heat or by excessive fertilization with nutrients.
• Air pollution
• water pollution
• soil pollution
• sound pollution
• Air Pollution :- Industrial discharge, excessive use of chemical, radioactive substances
• Effect :- radiation, acid rain, greenhouse effect, health hazards
• Water Pollution:- Industrial waste, excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, oil-spill
• Soil Pollution :- Fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, and fumigates
• Noise Pollution :- Loud speaker, high pitch crackers, stereophonic music, industrial machines, electrical and electronic gadgets and audio and video systems
• Deforestation:-
Deforestation means clearance forests by human activities in the form of indiscriminate reckless, and ruthless cutting off tress in the forest areas or by spreading fires et by farmers and plantation workers in the forest areas or by the severe drought conditions or by pets and air pollution
Causes of Deforestation
• Population explosion
• Increasing demand for food
• Adverse effects of industries, mining and quarrying on forests
• Practice of shifting cultivation
• For raw materials
• Increasing need for fuelwood
• High intensity of grazing in India
• Commercial exploitation of forest
• Effects of Deforestation :-
• Species extinction erosion, flooding reduced land productivity
• Desertification and climate change and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide.
• As more habitat is destroyed more species are facing extinctions.
• Deforestation of watersheds causes erosion, flooding and siltation.
• Upstream land loses fertile topsoil and downstream crops are flooded, In drier areas deforestation contributes to desertification.
• Deforestation can alter local and regional climates because evaporation of water from leaves makes up as much as two-thirds of the rain that falls in some forest.
• Without trees to hold back surface runoff and block wind, available moisture is quickly drained away and winds dry the soil sometimes resulting in desert-like conditions.
• Another potential effect on climate is the large scale release into the atmosphere of carbon dioxide stored as organic carbon in forests and forest soils.
• In 1980, tropical deforestation released between 0.4 and 1.6 billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere, an amount equal to 10 to 40 percent that from fossil fuels.
Acid Rain:-
• When fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are burned, chemicals like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are produced.
• hydroelectric reservoirs are filled with silt and fisheries are destroyed.
• These chemicals react with water and other chemicals in the air to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid and other harmful pollutants like sulfates and nitrates.
• These acid pollutants spread upwards into the atmosphere, and are carried by air currents, to finally return to the ground in the form of acid rain, fog or snow
• The corrosive nature of acid rain causes many forms of environmental damage.
• Acid pollutants also occur as dry particles and gases, which when washed from the ground by rain, add to the acids in the rain to form an even more corrosive solution. This is called acid deposition
• When fossil fuels are burned, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are released into the air.
• As these gases react with other chemicals and with sunlight and moisture in the atmosphere, the sulphur dioxide changes into sulphuric acid (the same substance that is used in car batteries) and the oxides of nitrogen become nitric acid.
• These acids then return to earth along with rain, snow, hail or fog.
• This acidification can kill fish in lakes and streams, dissolve limestone statues and gravestones, corrode metal, and possibly kill certain trees and reduce the growth of some cops.
• In India there are alarming reports of acidification from Mumbai, Delhi, Nagpur & Kolkata.
• In Mumbai, this phenomenon is becoming more and more common due to several industries discharging sulphur dioxide in the air making rain water more acidic.
• It is reported that Mumbai had already recorded rainfall with pH3.5 (too acidic).
• The situation would worsen in future after the setting up of thermal power stations in difference places
Effects:-
• Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients in the soil, which are needed by plants. It can also dissolve naturally occurring toxic substances like aluminum and mercury, freeing them to pollute water or poison plants.
• Acid rain indirectly affects plants by removing nutrients from the soil in which they grow. It affects trees more directly by creating holes in the waxy coating of leaves, causing brown dead spots which affect the plant’s photosynthesis.
• Acid rain that falls or flows as ground water to reach rivers, lakes and wetlands, causes the water in them to become acidic. This affects plant and animal life in aquatic ecosystems.
• Acid rain also has far reaching effects on wildlife. By adversely affecting one species, the entire food chain in disrupted, ultimately endangering the entire ecosystem.
• Acid rain and dry acid deposition damages buildings, automobiles and other structures made of stone or metal. The acid corrodes the materials causing extensive damage and ruins historic buildings. For instance the Parthenon in Greece and the Taj Mahal in India have been affected by acid rain.
• Although surface water polluted by acid rain does not directly harm people, the toxic substances leached from soil can pollute the water supply. Fish caught in these waters may be harmful for human consumption. Acid, along with other chemicals in the air, produces urban smog, which causes respiratory problems.
• Remedies:-
• To reduce the emissions of sulfer dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere
• Switching to cleaner building fuels. Using natural gas which is cleaner than coal or using coal with lower sulfer content.
• Developing more efficient vehicles will reduce pollutants from being released into the air.
• In catalytic converters, the gases are passed over metal coated beads that convert harmful chemicals into less harmful ones. These are used in cars to reduce the effects of exhaust fumes on the atmosphere.
• Once acid rain has affected soil, powdered limestone can be added to the soil by a process known as liming to neutralize the acidity of the soil.
Ozone Layer Depletion:-
• Ozone, a form of oxygen consisting of three atoms of oxygen instead of two, is considered an air pollutant when found at ground levels and is a major component of smog.
• Ozone layer is present in the stratosphere, which protects the earth from harmful solar radiation, especially with ultraviolet rays.
• Due to thoughtless use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) in refrigerators and mixing of carbon dioxide in the ambient environment depletion of ozone layer is taking place. Holes in polar regions have been reported. Severe damage has been caused in band from 40 to 50 degree latitudes north.
• The southern part of the former Soviet Union, Southern Canada and West and East Europe, including upper part of the United States, come in the band.
• Scientists are agreed that any major depletion of the ozone layer would cause serious harm not only to humans, but to animals, plants, birds, insects and some sea life also.
• Skin cancer would increase, as would damage to the eyes of living creatures, including humans.
• The presence of ozone layer in the atmosphere is very crucial and significant for plants and animals in general and human beings in particular because it provides a protective cover, known as earth’s umbrella, to all the organisms in the biospheric ecosystem against their exposure to ultraviolet solar radiation.
• Infact, the ozone layer filters the solar radiation by absorbing unwanted ultraviolet rays and allowing only those radiation waves to reach the earth’s surface, which are essential for the maintenance of life on the planet earth.
• Any change in the equilibrium level of ozone in the atmosphere will adversely affect the life in the biosphere.
• Thus growing concern for the depletion of stratospheric ozone is not without reason and scientific evidence.
Effects of Ozone Depletion:-
• The most dangerous effect of ozone depletion would be substantial increase in the ultraviolet solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface. The increased ultraviolet solar radiation in turn would raise the temperature of the earth’s surface and the lower atmosphere.
• Because of weakening the Ozone layer there will be les absorption of ultraviolet solar radiation and hence more ultraviolet rays will reach the earth’s surface and consequently the temperature of the earth’s surface will be increased
• This would cause skin cancer particularly among the while populations
• Prone to infectious diseases
• The heavily fertilized crops would be more adversely affected due to their exposure to ultraviolet radiation. It is significant to point out that as the levels of phosphorous in the soils increases, the hence plants are damaged.
• The loss of fish population would directly affect human beings because fishes are major source of food to the inhabitants of the coastal areas. The increased ultraviolet solar radiation will also increase the mortality rate of larvae of zooplanktons
Greenhouse
• The release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels in warming the earth’s temperature will increase between 1.50 C – 4.50 C may seem insignificant but it is greater than any temperature changes experienced by the humanity during the last 10000 years.
• Global warming would mean shorter cold seasons and larger warm ones
• The winter in the northern region will be warmer and its summer longer which will disrupt its agriculture severely.
• Consequently, extreme weather conditions would be a common phenomenon, and there will be mass extinction of plants as well as animals from the forests.
• Studies on CO2 – induced warming have been done by various investigators.
• It sea level rises about 90 cms, a third of Florida (USA), Perth (Australia), parts of Netherlands, and half of Mumbai would be under water.
• Encouragingly, Perth is the only city taking precaution to stop greenhouse gases along its coastal areas.
• Bangladesh, Maldives, Egypt and Indonesia will also be plunged in water.
• Coastal areas such as East Anglica and the Thames Estuary in the United Kingdom and low-lying cities such as New Orleans, Miami and Shanghai would also be at great risk.
• In fact, one third of the world population inhabits within 60 kms of coastal line. There would be major changes in the amount of rainfall and its location, with some areas getting more rainfall than at present and some less.
• Some parts of the world will have a better climate for growing food and other parts will have a worse one
Green House Gases :-
• Greenhouse gases are gases in the atmosphere that absorb and re-emit energy from the sun. They are believed to cause the global climatic changes known as the Greenhouse effect.
• The most significant green house gas is carbon dioxide which is released to the atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels for different purposes in various ways e.g.,
• Electric power stations based on fossil fuels mainly coal and mineral oil emit huge amount of carbon dioxide which reaches the atmosphere every year.
• Numerous factories spread all over the world burn immense quantity of coal, mineral oil and natural gas and spew huge amount of carbon dioxide together with other undesirable gases through their chimneys into the atmosphere
• The third major source is the transport sector, which includes various type of vehicles run on coal and petroleum. For example:- railways are large consumers of coal mainly in the developing countries.
Global warming / Green House Effect Gases :-
• The gases that are presented in the global warming are :-
• Carbon Dioxide
• Methane
• Nitrous Oxide
• Water Vapors
• Chloroflouric Carbons
• Impact of Air Pollution:-
• Air pollution adversely affects man and his environment in several ways. It dirties the home and clothes, interferes with the growth of crops and other vegetation, obscures vision, causes unpleasant odours and endangers health.
• The effects can be classified as follows:-
• Effect on human health
• Effects on reduction of visibility
• Effects upon climate
• Effects upon socio-economic life
• Effects on plants and vegetation
• Definitions:-
• Environmental Degradation
• Pollution
• Deforestation
• Acid Rain
• Ozone Depletion
• Global Warming
• Sustainable Development
Resources and Sustainable Development
• “Resource” may be defined as any means of attainment of given goals, ends, or objectives, in any walk of life, including the fields like agriculture, industry, forestry, fishery, energy etc.,
•
• The term “natural resources” has undergone an expansion in meaning because of man’s greater understanding of his relationship with the external, physical word in which he lives in.
Classification of Natural Resources
Natural resources may broadly be classified into two categories
• Renewable Resources :- Renewable resources are those resources, that can be renewed, reproduced and regenerated.
• All renewable resources may be classified into two distinct categories viz.
• Exhaustible Resources:- Exhaustible resources are those resources, that get exhausted after use, but can be renewed for some period, like land, or soil forests wild life fisheries water etc.,
• Exhaustible resources are also known as ‘depletable’ resources
• These resources are renewable but exhaustible because the excessive utilization of these renewable resources can, in the long run, turn them into “exhaustible” resources, in the sense that these resources may get exhausted due to their non-judicious, reckless and indiscriminate use
• Agricultural Natural Resources :- Agricultural land is the most basic of the world’s vast and varied natural resource. It is an exhaustible, renewable resource.
• The various crops cultivated by man, which constitute the main agricultural resources, may be classified into the following five categories:-
• Cereals, Beverages, Sugarcane, Fibers, Rubber and Oilseeds
• Pastoral Natural Resources :- Another resource, associated with land, is the pastroal resources, that are related to rearing of animals for different purposes, such as for Milk, Butter, Curd, Meat, Wool or Hides
• Inexhaustible Natural Resources:- Inexhaustible natural resources are those resources, which do not get exhausted by repeated use endlessly. Example:- solar energy, air (wind power), wave power, human beings, biomass etc.,
• Non-Renewable Natural Resources:- Non-renewable natural resources are those resources that cannot be renewed, or regenerated by any physical, mechanical or chemical processes at all. Example:- Metals, Coal, Oil and gas


Exploitation & Conservation of Land Resources
• Exploitation of the Land (Soil) Resources :- Land is the most important natural resource, available to mankind, because it serves as a “foundation” upon which rests the entire ecological system
• Soil Erosion
• Impoverishment of Soil
• Causes of Soil Erosion and Soil Impoverishment
• Over-cropping
• Over-grazing
• Over-Irrigation
• Deforestation
• Step Slope Cultivation
• Cultivation of Marginal Land
• Soil Conservation By Sound Farming Methods and Practices:- Conservation of soil and consequent improvement in crop yields and money returns to farmers can be achieved by adoption of sound farming techniques and practices, some of which are as under:-
• Contour Ploughing (Ploughing at Right Angles to Hill Slope)
• Terracing (Formation of Terraces on Slopes)
• Strip Cropping (Cultivation in Alternate Strips)
• Fallowing (Allowing Much-used Land to Rest)
• Cover Cropping in Plantations
• Crop Rotation (Alternative Crops in the field)
• Crop Diversification
• Judicious Use of Chemical Fertilizers
• Timely and Proper Water Management
• Exploitation of Forest Resource
• Commercial Exploitation of Forest
• Exploitation of Forests for Medicinal Plants
• Improvement of the Climate by Afforestation
• Conservation of Forests
• Degradation by Prevention of Regeneration of Forests
• Overcutting of Tress leads to Soil Erosion by Sheet Wash
• Various Measures for Conservation of Forests
• Afforestation (Replantation of New Seedling Trees)
• Improved cutting practices
• Forest Protection
• Minimization of Wastage
• Exploitation of Fishery
• Concept of Modern Fishery
• Prevention of Over-Fishing and Killing of Immature Fish
• Two Main Types of Fish
• Other Marine Products:-
• Whales
• Sealing
• Pearling
• Conservation of Fisheries :- Following are some of the important factors, that contribute to the decline of the world’s fish hauls viz:-
• Overfishing
• Reckless and indiscriminate fishing of immature fish
• Pollution of water by chemical plants and factories
• Ignorance of fish culture
• Exploitation & Conservation of Water Resources
• Demand & Supply of Water:-
• Water is a life generating resource
• Rising global water consumption
• Water is a renewable but exhaustible natural resource
• Exploitation of water resources:-
• Need of judicious exploitation of water resources
• Effect of free, or, highly subsidised electricity to farmers
• Infiltration of sea-water into wells
• Conservation of Water Resources
• Construction of Tanks and Storage of water
• Storage of roof-top rain water
• Regulation of water supply by village council
• Substantial charges for disposal of industrial waste water
• Recycling of waste water
• Exploitation and conservation of inexhaustible renewable energy resources
• An ever-increasing demand of energy all over the world
• Unlimited solar (sun) energy
• Unlimited air (wind) energy
• Unlimited tidal and wave energy
• Biomass fuels (firewood, cow-dung & farm waste)
• Biogas (The most economical source of energy)
• Geothermal Energy
• Nuclear (Atomic) energy
• Exploitation and conservation of minerals and metal resources
• Exploitation of Minerals and Metal Resources
• Classification of minerals and metals
• Exploitation of metallic minerals
• Uneven distribution of metallic ores and other metals
• Dereliction (Exhaustion of the ores)
• Conservation of Minerals and Metal Resources
• Dereliction and its dangers can be combated and consequent conservation of minerals and metal resources can be achieved by the following two measures:-
• The existing mining companies can be forced by legislation, to rehabilitate land, after it has become uneconomic to extract the minerals
• Reclamation by nation (central), or, state government agencies
• Exploitation and Conservation of Non-Renewable Energy Resources
• Coal (Black, Or, Brown Rock)
• Petroleum (Oil) from Rocks
• Natural Gas from Rocks
• Thermal Electricity and Hydro-Electric Power
• Conservation of Resources and Sustainable Development
• Concept of Sustainable Development
Definition :- Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet the future needs.
Sustainable development is a term first introduced to the international community by our common future. The 1987 report of the world commission on environment.
• Satisfaction of the Present & future needs of the society
• Balance between exploitation & conservation of natural resources
• Five fundamental Principles of Sustainable Development
• Maintenance of ecological harmony
• Attainment of maximum economic efficiency
• Conservation of natural resources
• Local self-reliance of the sons and daughters of the soil
• Administration of equity with social justice
Rachel Carson (1907 – 1964)
• Silent Spring :- Her book on the dangers on misusing pesticides, “Silent Spring” has become a classic of environmental literature.
• The books begins with a shocking fable of one composite town’s “Silent Spring” after pesticides have decimated insects and the birds that feed upon them.
• The main part of the book is a massive documentation of the effects of organic pesticides on all kinds of life, including birds and humans.
• The final sections are quite restrained, drawing a hopeful picture of the future, if feasible alternatives to the use of pesticides such as biological controls – are used in conjunction with and as a partial replacement of chemical sprays.
• She showed convincing evidence that long-lasting chemical pesticides, such as DDT, had already caused destruction among many kinds of living things, and quite possibly irreversible damage in humans.
• It showed that DDT and other chemicals that were used to enhance agricultural productivity were fatal, and were poisoning our lakes, rivers, oceans and ourselves.
• Rachel Carson in her book talks about the effects of the huge number of chemicals introduced every year
• She identified that the chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates threatened not only the marine life but also identified other effects of these toxicants on surface and ground water contagion, by leakage, runoff and direct spray as contamination problems.
• She acknowledged the rising cancer hazards caused by polluted water and recognized that water treatment plants did not take off the chemicals because the multiple chemicals in catch basins interacted to form noxious compounds thus heightening the risk of cancer.
• Carson noticed that herbicides were not a problem to animals at that time. She stated that the biological species were harmed by the chemical treatment of soil, which had distressed the equilibrium and caused an imbalance in the ecosystem.
• Carson was nowhere against the use of chemicals for pest control, but she promoted the appeal and enormous potential of biological control instead of chemicals and use of natural products and less toxic chemicals like pyrethrins.
• Her other concern was that the scientists and the government did not look in to the problems caused by these pesticides on wildlife and were mainly addressed the concern of classical toxicity of the pesticides. Hence no testing was done on the effects of these chemicals on the wildlife.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
• Introduction
• The UNEP is a specialized agency established in 1972 by the United Nations General Assembly
• Its aim is to promote international co-operation in environmental matters.
• It tasks include constant surveillance of the environment in a program known as Earch watch, analysis of trends the collection and dissemination of information, the adoption of environmentally sound policies and ensuring the compatibility of projects with the priorities of developing countries
• Issues:-
UNEP has initiated projects concerned with the following problems:-
• The Ozone Layer, Climate, The transport and disposal of waste, the marine environment, water systems soil degradation, deforestation, biodiversity, urban environment, sustainable development, energy conservation, human settlements and population issues, health, toxic chemicals, environmental law and education.
• Activities:-
• The activities of the UNEP are financed from the UN’s general budget, by members’ contributions, and by trust funds.
• The money is allocated proportionally: 20% to Africa, Asia, Latin America, Western Asia, Europe and the Mediterranean and 80% to global projects
• UNEP, however, is not a funding agency. Its resources are used to start up programs, which then draw funds from other sources, such as Governments and environmental agencies.
• It works in close co-operation with other UN agencies, especially the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
• It also has links with over 6000 non-governmental bodies concerned with the environment.
• Its Governing Council, with representatives from 58 member states, meets every two years.
• The administrative committee on co-ordination liaises between UNEP and other UN agencies and related programs.
• The organization’s headquarters are in Nariobi, Kenya.
• In September, 99 UNEP claimed that the world would face a massive environmental crisis is the twenty-first century unless immediate action was taken.
• According to its report, Global Environment Outlook 2000 (GEO-2000) which UNEP claims is the most “authoritative assessment” of environmental issues ever produced, the chief culprits behind the world’s current environmental situation were the ‘continued poverty of the majority’ of the world‘s people and ‘excessive consumption’ by Western and some East Asian nations.
• The Earth Summit:-
• In June, 92 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, commonly known as the Earth Summit was convened for twelve days on the outskirts of Rio De Janeiro, Brazil.
• It was attended by delegates from 178 countries including many prime ministers and presidents, making it the largest conference ever held.
• The Earth Summit developed and legitimized a broad agenda for environmental, economic, and political change.
• The purpose of the conference were to identify long-term environmental reforms and to initiate processes for their implementation and supervision.
• Conventions were held to discuss and adopt documents on the environment.
• The major topics covered by these conventions included climate change, bio-diversity, forest protection, Agenda 21 which is a 900-page blueprint for environmental development, and the Rio Declaration, which is a six-page statement that called for integrating the environment with economic development.
• The climate convention and the biodiversity convention were legal agreements
• The earth summit was an historic event of great significance.
• Not only did it make the environment a priority of the world’s agenda, it also resulted in an agreement on the Climate Change Convention, which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol. Another agreement was to “not carry out any activities on the lands of indigenous peoples that would cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally inappropriate.”

CORRUPTION
Definition :-
Corruption in simple terms may be described as “an act of Bribery”.
It has also been described as “the use of public power for private profits in a way that constitutes a breach of law or a deviation from the norms of society.
Corruption is spread over in the society in several forms. Of these, the major ones are :
• Bribe ( money offered in cash or kind or gift as inducement to procure illegal or dishonest action in favour of the giver )
• Nepotism ( undue favour from holder of patronage to relatives )
• Misappropriation (Using other’s money for one’s own use )
• Patronage ( Wrong support / encouragement given by patron and thus misusing the position )
• Favouritism ( Unduly preferring one to other )
• Corruption can be among public servants. For example:-
• Sanctioning of contracts
• Passing bills
• Issuing of cheques etc.,
• The 4 major ministries in union government. They are:-
• Defence
• Petroleum
• Power and Communication – which are regarded as gold mine for making money
• The other departments are :-
• Public work
• Police
• Excise
• Revenue
• Causes of Corruption can be categorized as :-
• Economic
• Social
• Political
• Legislative
• Judicial
• Causes of Corruption :-
• Emergence of political elite who believe in interest oriented rather than nation oriented programs and policies
• Economic policy of the government
• Corruption is caused by scarcity
• Corruption is caused as well as increased because of the change in value system and ethical qualities of men who administer.
• Corruption can be traced to ineffective administrative organization. Lack of vigilance, enormous powers to the ministerial staff, unaccountability, defective information system etc., give scope to officials not only to be corrupt but remain unaffected even after following corrupt practices
• THE BOFORS PAYOFF SCANDAL in 1986 involved a total amount of Rs.1750 crore in the purchase of guns from the Swedish firm for the military. It was said that a sum of Rs.64 crore has been paid as kickbacks.
• THE CEMENT SCANDAL of 1982 involved the Chief Minister of Maharashtra, who was accused of allocating scarce cement for donations worth five crore rupees to one of his charitable trusts.
• THE PLOT SCANDAL in 1988-89 involved another Chief Minister of Maharashtra, who later became the Defence Minister at Centre, in which he offered plots to builders for consideration of money worth hundreds of crores of rupees
• THE BROWN BEVERI LOCOMOTIVE DEAL SCANDAL involved in the Central Railway Minister who was accused of having acquired vast properties in Karnataka without his every trying to reveal how he acquired the resources
• THE SECURITIES SCANDAL in Maharashtra involved the share brokers, directors and managers of several reputed banks
• THE PAY OFF SCANDAL in 1993 involved the then Prime Minister who was charged for having received a bag containing Rs.1.00 crore from one share broker
• THE SUGAR SCANDAL in 1994 involved a Union Minister of State for Food, who earlier was also involved in molasses decontrol scandal.
• THE TREASURY FRAUD SCANDAL involving Rs.200 crore was unearthed in Assam in June, 1995.
• THE HAWALA SCANDAL of 1991 not only rocked the political circles but in fact the whole society
• THE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SCAM took place in Bihar in which a large number of public officials of Animal Husbandry Department are accused of purchasing fodder beyond the sanctioned amount and of illegally withdrawing about Rs.950 crore from the government treasuries between 1990 and 1995.
• THE UREA SCAM is a scandal which is different from other scandals not because of the size of the kickback (Rs.133 crore) but because of the transaction was essentially fraudulent
• In the TELECOMMUNICATIONS DEPARTMENT SCAM, the former telecommunications Minister and his bureaucrat’s involvement came to light in July, 96.
• JMM SCANDAL is a bribery scan involving four MPs of Jharkand Mukti Morcha (JMM) party and three MPs of Janata Dal for receiving Rs.40 lakh early in July, 93 for exercising their vote to defeat the no-confidence motion in the parliament against Narasimha Rao’s ministry.
• THE INDIAN BANK SCAM involves financial irregularities by the Bank between 1991 and 1995 resulting in a loss of Rs.2,358 crore to the public sector bank
• A MAJOR MINING SCANDAL (July 2005) in Rajasthan’s Jodhpur and Jaisalmer districts has been exposed in the past few months. Several cases have come to light of upper caste influential people fraudulently getting quarry licences issued or renewed in the names of individuals belonging to the scheduled casts (SCs) and scheduled tribes (STs) and other backward casts (OBCs). Many actual leaseholders are completely ignorant that they are official owners of quarries, and continue living in penury. Some know about it but can do little to change the situation.
• Corruption is antinational, anti-economic development and anti-poor.
• Corruption is also anti-economic development
• Corruption is anti-national as was revealed by the fact that the terrorists in Kashmir were getting funds funds through Hawala route
The corruption can be tackled by adopting following strategies :-
• Simplification of rules and procedures so that the scope of corruption is reduced
• Transparency and empowerment of public i.e Right to information act by using information technology
• Checking corruption is prompt punishment
CRIME
• Crime refers to those activities that break the law of the land and are subject to official punishment.
• Delinquency refers to acts that are criminal or are considered anti-social, which are committed by young people
Types of Crime :-
• White Collar Crime
• The term covers many types of criminal activity, including tax frauds, embezzlement, the manufacture or sale of dangerous products as well as straight forward theft.
• White collar crime mainly involves the use of a middle class or professional position to engage in illegal activities.
Crimes of the powerful are those in which the authority conferred by a position is used in criminal ways – as when an official accepts a bribe to favour a particular policy
• Corporate Crime
• These are the offences which are committed by large corporations in society.
• Pollution, mis-labelling and violations of health and safety regulations affect much larger numbers of people than does small criminality
• Laureen Snider argues that many of the most serious antisocial and predatory acts committed in modern industrial societies are corporate crimes
• Garry Slapper and Steve Tombs have conducted studies and revealed six types of violations linked to large corporations :-
• Administrative
• Environmental (Pollution)
• Financial (Tax violations)
• Labour (Working conditions)
• Manufacturing (product safety, labelling)
Government Crime
• Victimless Crime
• By contrast “Victimless crimes” – the term is used by sociologists to describe the willing exchange among adults of widely desired but illegal goods and services.
• Organized Crime
• Organized crime is the work of a group that regulate relations between various criminal enterprises involved in smuggling and sale of drugs, prostitution and gambling and other activities
• Professional Crime
• Cyber Crimes

POLITICAL APATHY
• In India, political participation is characterized by political apathy.
• Political apathy reflects the vanishing point of political participation
• Some people develop no interest in political activity and become apathetic. Decline in electoral turnout, party membership and civic activism are signs or manifestations of political apathy
• People take democracy for granted. In the words of Pericles, a Greek statesman, “we consider a man who takes no interest in the state, not as harmless but as useless; and although only a few men originate a policy, we are all able to judge it”.
• In a democracy, one comes across two types of apathetic:
– Deliberate
– Non-Deliberate
• There are those who fail to participate because of
– Lack of information
– Lack of opportunity
– Incapacity
– fear
• These non-deliberate causes is seen more amongst the uneducated, poor, helpless and weaker sections of society
• The other type of political apathy is deliberate due to
– Lack of interest
– Indifference
– Political involvement perceived to be less rewarding than other kinds of human activity
– Lack of political efficacy – capacity to influence outcome
– Satisfaction with the current political system
– Total frustration with the system
– Ideological stereotype eg. Naxalites
– Cynicism – Rich and Intellectuals
CRIMINALISATION OF POLITICS IN INDIA
• Meaning:-
• The word criminal means a person, who has committed a crime, or, an act relating to, or, involving a crime.
• Criminalization of politics, therefore, means two things :-
• Entry of criminals, or, anti-social elements, into legislative assemblies through elections by anti-democratic means and consequent, frequent breakdown of law and order within the country ; and
• Commission of criminal acts, or, practices in public offices for personal and / or private gains
• Entry of Criminals or Anti-social elements in legislative assemblies in India:-
• Increasing criminalization of Politics and Breakdown of Law and Order
• Role of money power and muscle power in representative bodies
• Some politicians are seen as Rogues and Scoundrels
• Why criminals and criminal elements enter into Politics?
• Weak police force and inefficient legal system
• Lots of money with dons
• Remedies to cure maladies
• Public funding for election
• Casting of votes by middle class and upper class voters
• Blanket ban on defections
• Day-to-Day hearing of criminal cases against legislators

Social Movements
According to Turner & Killian Social Movement is formally defined as “a collectively acting with some continuity to promote or resist change in the society or group of which it is a part”
A social movement is a collective effort to promote or resist change - Horton & Hunt
Characteristics of Social Movements
• Collective Action
• Oriented towards Social Change
• Ideology behind the Movement
• Organizational Frame Work
• The Techniques & Results
Formation of Social Movements
• The Preliminary Stage – The Unrest Stage
• The Popular Stage
• The Formalization Stage (The stage of formal orgn.)
• The Stage of institutionalization of the movement
• The Dissolution Stage
Cautions of a Successful Social Movement
All the social movements do not become successful in achieving the target. Sociologist Abet (1937) has spoken of some conditions which, if satisfied, would contribute to the success of the movement.
1. Many individuals must experience the events which are perceived as a threat
2. The reaction to the events must be a strong and emotional dissatisfaction
3. Personal values must be involved
4. There must be some object which becomes the focus of dissatisfaction and opposition of the movement.
Types of Social Movements :-
• Reform Movements
• Revolutionary Movements
• Reactionary or Revivalist Movement
• Resistance Movement
• Utopian Movement
TRADE UNION
Trade Union movement in India can be divided into three phases :-
First Phase (1852 – 1918)
Reason for the movement :-
• Poor working condition
• Long hours of work
Demands:-
• Complete day of rest every Saturday
• Half an hour’s rest at noon
• Working hours no longer than 6.30 PM
• Payment of wages not later than 15th of month
• Payment to the injured workers
Formation of Unions :-
• Bombay Mill hand Association – formed in 1890 by Mr. N. M. Lokhanday
• Dinbandhu, a working class newspaper was published
• The amalgamated society of Railway Servants of India & Burma
• Printers Union of Calcutta
Objectives of Trade Unions were to Promote:-
• Welfare activities
• Spread literacy among factory workers
• Causes
• Investigations
• Memoranda
• Petitions
• Legal enactments
• Committees & Commission
Features :-
• Complete absence of radicalism in the labour movement
• Movement depended greatly on external philanthropy
• Most of organizations were unstable, lacked definite aims and constitution
• Movement developed among the educated class of workers
Leadership was provided by 3 types of persons
• Intellectuals such as lawyers, reformers etc.,
• Careerists
• Politicians and Nationalists
Causes of the Labour Movement
• Economic hardships of workers
• Failure of the workers to organize themselves led them to seek the help of the social workers who are higher in economic and social status
The entire period has been divided into two
• Regulation period – when the child and women labour in factories was regulated by legislation
• Abolition period – when a successful protest was made against the indebtured system
Second Phase (1918 – 1947)
Characteristics :-
• Development of Organized trade unions & Political movements of the working class
• Leadership of the trade union was passed from the hands of social workers to the politicians
• Causes :-
• Industrial unrest as a result of grave economic difficulties created by war
• The swaraj Movement intensified the Movement
• The success of the Russian Revolution in 1917
• The establishment of I. Lo. Gave dignity to the working class
• After war, the Indian army people were demobilized and were sent to labour market
• The non co-operative Movement by Gandhiji intensified the Movement
At this time, many unions were found such as
• Indian Seamen’s Union in Calcutta & Bombay
• The Punjab Press Employees Association
• The Madras Textile Union,
• The first union in modern sense was formed in 1918 by Mr. Wadia
• The Textile Union Association was formed in 1920
• The All India Trade Union Congress under the chairmanship of Lala Lajpat Rai was established in Bombay in 1920
Issues:-
• Extremely short interval formed midday meal
• Frequent assaults on workers by European assistants
• Inadequate wages
Left Wing Unionism period (1924 – 1934)
1924, a violent and long drawn out strike by union led to
• Arrest
• Prosecution
• Imprisonment of Communist leaders
There was rapid growth of trade unionism due to
• Growth of anti-imperialist National Movement
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Rowlatt Act
• Profit earned by capitalists
By 1926-1927, workers and peasant parties sprang up and local units were united with “All India Workers & Peasant Party
• Splits were found in the union
• Dominance of communists
• Two parties emerged – rightists & Leftists
• The nature of rightists is opposed militant action, strike and demanded trade union with economic issue
• The nature of leftists is class organization, and its aim is to over through capitalizm advocated militant action – captured economic & political power
• Trade Union Unity Period (1935 – 1938)
• Second world war period (1939 – 1945)
Causes :-
• Different Political factors in the AITUC related in different ways to the role of India in war
• Alrage group led by Radical democratic party (M. N. Roy, Mehra etc.,) agreed to participate and support the war
• Other groups (S. C. Bose & others) opposed the view. There was a rift in 1941, the Radicals left the AITUC and formed a new central federation as Indian Federation of Labour
During the wartime certain factors held to enhance the status of trade unions
• Launched a number of labour welfare measures
• Recognition of trade union was there
• Ban was placed on strikes, lockouts etc.,
• Tripartite labour conference was established in 1942, to provide common platform for discussions and mutual understanding between labour and employees
At the end of the war, there were 3 principal political groups
• The communist dominating AITUC
• The Royists – IFL
• Nationalist and Socialist – Labour front
Post Independence Period (Third Phase)
• The third phase began with the emergence of Independent India & the Government sought the co-operation of Union for planned economic development
• INTUC :- was organized in 1947
Objectives
• Ensure full employment
• Greater participation of workers in the management
• To organize workers on an industry wise basis
Methods :-
• Legitimate
• Peaceful & democratic i.e. legislation, mass meeting negotiations, demonstrations & last is strike
Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) - 1948
Ideology
• Socialists Philosophy
Aim:-
• Promote economic, political and social interest of the worker
• To form a federation of unions of men the same industry
• To promote the formation of co-operative societies and to foster worker’s education
Method
• Legitimate, peaceful and democratic
Centre of Indian Trade Union (CITU)
This was established in 1971 as a result of a split in AITUC owing its allegiance to CPI (m)

Objectives :-
• Organizing workers to further interests in economic, social & political matters
Method:-
• legislature, demonstration, agitation & intensification of the class struggle
United Trade Union Congress - formed in 1949
Objectives :-
• To establish Pure Trade Union Movement free from control of political leadership
Method:-
• legitimate, peaceful and democratic. Strike as a last resort
Aim :-
• Socialist Society in India
• Nationalize and Socialize the means of production
• To bring about unity in the Trade Union Movement
Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) – Established in 1954
• It is productivity oriented non-political trade union
Ideological basis :- Triple formula
• Nationalize the labour
• Labourize the industry
• Industralize the nation
• It rejects the state control
Method :-
• Applies all legitimate means with the spirit of nationalism
National Front of Indian Trade Union (NFITU) – formed in 1967
Ideology
• Emphasis on certain spirituals but rejects politicalization of trade unions
• To organize and unite trade union
• To secure to members of trade union full facilities
Trade Union militancy reached its peak after independence, especially during 70’s and 80’s. The demands are more pecuniary. No attention was paid by the Union leaders to improve workers skill in order to increase product quality nor was there any demand for enforcing the ban on the sale of alcoholic drinks in and around the workplace.
General issues addressed by Trade Union :-
• Issues such as deregulation of the markets
• Technological change (SAP)
• Decentralization of collective bargaining
• Issues on economic liberalization (Reforming industrial relations)
• Privatization (Employment implication & labour adjustment)
• Globalization (Increased prosperity and deepening inequality)
• Child labour
• Trade union riots
• Discrimination
• Forced labour
• Crisis against change in rule of the government, dis-investment voluntary retirement scheme
• Focus on unorganized sector
• Active gender policies and initiatives
• New Trends in Trade Union
• Emergence of independent unions
• Merger moves
• Distancing from affiliating political parties
• Democratization of unions
• The labour movement play an important role to play in sustainable development and participatory democracy
Names of Organization
• AITUC
• BMS
• CITU
• INTUC
PEASANT MOVEMENT
Peasant
• People who engage in agriculture or related production with primitive means and who surrender part of their products to landlords or to agents of state.
• Peasants are in inferior position
• Serve the interests of landlords
• They are not owners / controllers of the land
• Toil land but do not have rights over the land / produce
Peasant Movement (PM)
Relatively organized and collective action involving violence, or threat of violence, for securing more share in the control or ownership of land and its produce and to abolish injustices which has risen thereof.
Elements of PM
• Focus of conflict
• Land and its produce
• Mobilization takes place
• Participants – small cultivators, agricultural laborers, landless laborers
• Demand their right over the land they till and call for an end to atrocities inflicted on them by the landowners
• Target – landowners / state agencies – who exercise ownership / control over the land and its produce.
Features
• Illiterate, malnutrition, culturally and technologically backward
• Passive, Docile and fatalistic
Indian Peasant Movement – 3 Phases
1857 – 1921
Issue :-
• Enhancement of rent
• Eviction of landlords
• Feudal exploitation
Nature
• Unorganized and confined to a particular region Leadership-some (independence movement) – armed strugglers (led by leftists / outsider)
• District of Kurnool, Anantpur etc.,
• British increase on taxes for peasants including the wastelands
1855 – 1873
Santhal revolt & Bengal revolt for autonomy
• British & Zamindars
• Violence
• Oppression of moneylenders
• British intervened and passed relief act – no peasant could be sent to jail for failure of paying of debts.
1890 – 1900
Agitation in Punjab
• Against moneylenders
• Reflects the primitive nature of peasant struggle
Effects
• Political consciousness
• Against indenture system
1921 – 1946
• Emergence of class consciousness
• Gandhi’s & Rajendra Prasad’s leadership
• Champaran in Bihar against indigo plantation owners
• Satyagraha
1947
• Tebhanga, Telengana, Naxalbari
• Leadership – urban working class
Types of Peasant Movement
• Restorative rebellion – drive out the British and restore earlier rulers and social reforms
• Religious movement – liberation of a region or an ethnic group under a new form of government
• Social banditry
• Terrorist vengeance with the idea of meeting out collective justice
• Mass insurrections for the redress of particular grievances
Issues :-
• Revolts – as commercial riots / or mere banditry (Moplah rebellion 1919 & 1920’s)
• Hindu Muslim communal clash
• Agrarian conflicts – tenants & landlords
• Tension between the peasant community of East Bengal, Predominantly comprising Muslims, a state dominated by landlords, moneylenders and urban traders. (Riot 1926 – 1935 fundamentally religious)
Peasant Revolt
• Deterioration of their economic condition due to price rise, famine etc.,
• Structural changes, which cause an increase in the exploitation of peasants, consequently deteriorating their condition
• Rising aspirations of peasants to improve their condition
• Beggars (Forced labour)
• Distribution of equal land to all cultivators (Telengana movement)
• Change of mode of production in agriculture has disturbed a traditional agricultural relation that has resulted in unrest
• Remunerative prices for their produce, concession to subsidies in the prices of agricultural inputs, electricity charges, irrigation charges
• Deteriorating conditions were an important factor for the Telengana (1946-51) and Tebhaga (1946-1947) movement in Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.
• Revolts by agricultural laborers and tenants in the late 1960’s & 1970’s led to a rise in the prices of essential commodities
• Famine – regular feature of rural India
– 18th & 19th century - draught
• Excessive taxation imposed on Nizam – Telengana movement
Slogan :- Bharat Against India
Indigenous name
Peasants
• 1990 – Political Parties
• Demand
• Implementation of various land reforms
• Demand land to the fillers
• Implementation of land ceiling acts
• Distribution of land to poor cultivators / landless laborers
ORGANISATION :- KISAN ORGANISATION, HOLD MEETINGS AND AGITATIONS AND CALLED UPON THE PEASANTARY TO OPPOSE ILLEGAL DUES OF ZAMINDARS, MONEY LEADERS AND TRADERS.
• DUE TO THE GREEN REVOLUTION ACCOMPANIED WITH CAPITALIST AGRICULTURE, PENETRATIN OF MARKEY ECONOMY AND GLOBALISATION, THE PEASANT STRUGGLES HAVE UNDERGONE CHANGE.
• FARMERS ORGANISATION SUCH AS THE SHETKARI SANGATHANA IN MAHARASHTRA, BHARATIYA KISAN UNION (BKU) IN UTTAR PRADESH, KHEDUT SAMAJ IN GUJARAT, TAMIL NADU AND PUNJAB HAVE COME INTO EXISTENCE WITH POLITICAL CLOUT.
• THE CHAMPARAN AND GUJARAT PEASANT STRUGGLE THE AGITATION AGAINST ROWLATT ACT, THE STRATEGY OF SATYAGRAHA, CHIVL DISOBEDIENCE AND NON-COOPERATION GAVE NEW SIGNIFICANCE TO THE PEASANT STRUGGLE ORGANISED MASSIVE MOVEMENTS AGAINST THE LOCAL EXPLITATION AND THE BRITISH RULE.
• EVEN TODAY MANY INDIVIDUAL LEADERS AND ORGANISATION LIKE SWAMI AGNIVESH IN BIHAR, AND SHARAD JOSHI IN MAHARASHTRA ARE FIGHTING FOR IMPROVING THE CONDITIONS OF THE FARMERS.
• ISSUES TODAY ARE NOT JUST LAND RIGHTS OR PAYMENT OF REVENUE BUT THE IMPOSITION OF INTERNATIONAL TREATIES LIKE GATT, DETERIORATION CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL LAND DUE THE EXCESS USE OF CHEMICALS, AND FERTILISERS ARE SOME OF THE ISSUE OF CONCERN.
• EG. NAXALBARI MOVEMENT
• STRATEGY :- MILITANT ARMED STRUGGLE, AND CLASS WAR, WENT ON THE FORM OF THE COMMUNIST PART OF INDIA (MARXIST LENINIST)
• FORCIBLY TOOK CONTROL OF, LANDS AT NAXALBARI, FROM THE LOCAL LANDLORDS AND JOTEDARS. THEY FOUGHT AND WERE LIBERATED
ROLE of MEDIA
• To create awareness on various issues
• DD plays very important role – creates knowledge of fertilizers, cost of the market conditions etc.,
• Educating the farmers on loans and schemes so that they are saved from the further exploitation.
• Promote the problem of pesticides to intensify the movement creating public sympathy and attention.
• Various magazines like Baliraja, Shetkari (Marati Magazine) Yogana, Agro (English magazines)
• Programs in DD such as Krishiudyog which is meant for present awareness.

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS
They can be divided into two categories:-
Frontier Tribes :- Inhabitants of north east frontier states, - Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram etc.,
Non Frontier Tribes :- disturbed among most of the states, though they are concentrated in large numbers in MP, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat, Lakshadweep Islands

TYPES OF TRIBAL MOVEMENT

Reactionary :- tries to launch a movement to bring back the good old days
Conservative:- tries to maintain the status quo
Revisionary or Revolutionary :- are those which are organized for “improvement” purification” of the cultural or social order by eliminating evil or low customs, beliefs or institutions

SURAJIT SINHA classifies into
• ETHNIC REBELLION
• REFORM
• POLITICAL AUTONOMY WITHIN THE INDIAN UNION
• SECESSIONIST MOVEMENT
• AGRARIAN UNREST
S.M. DUBEY CLASSIFIES THE TRIBAL MOVEMENTS IN NORTHEAST INDIA INTO FOUR CATEGORIES :-
• RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENT
• MOVEMENT FOR SEPARATE STATEHOOD
• INSURGENT MOVEMENTS
• CULTURAL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS
In recent years, the rise of the international movement of indigenous people in the post-modernist phase, the focus has shifted to
• SELF DETERMINATION OR SELF MANAGEMENT OF THE RESOURCES
• IDENTITY
• ETHNCITY
• ENVIRONMENTAL PARTICULARLY BIO-DIVERSITY, PLURALISM, ETHNCITY & IDENTITY all are interrelated the tribal movement are assuming new character

THEY ARE NOW BECOMING MORE AND MORE IDENTITY BASED MOVEMENTS WITH VARIOUS ISSUES CONCERNING CONTROL OVER RESOURCES
ETHNIC MOVEMENT :- INCLUDE CULTURE / RELIGION IDENTITY
AGARAIAN & FOREST RIGHTS MOVEMENT :- ENVIRONMENTAL
INVOLUNTARY DISPLACEMENT & REHABILITATION MOVEMENTS
POLITICAL MOVEMENTS around the nationality question for a separate state
ISSUES:-
PHASES :-
• FIRST PHASE:- 1795 & 1860 – IT COINCISED WITH RISE, EXPANSION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE
• SECOND PHASE:- 1860 – 1920 – IT CONCISE WITH THE INTENSIVE PHASE OF COLONIALISM, DURING WHICH MERCHANT CAPITAL PENETRATED INTO TRIBAL ECONOMY – affecting their relationship with the land and forest
• THIRD PHASE:- 1920 TILL THE ACHIEVEMENT OF INDEPENDENCE:- the tribal not only began to launch the so called separatist movements but at the same time participated in nationalist and agrarian movement.
• During the 19th century : British came in conflict with various tribes – annexed tribal kingdoms, introduced British administration, tribals lost their power, resources – led to revolt against British. Various messianic movements started : aim: drive out the outsider, establish the golden age, tribal organization, culture. Eg. Mundas would recover their lost kingdom. Religion povided them courage, hope for better future and vigour to fight against them so it is called the Millenarian Movement
• Loss of identity :- the Naga, expressed their fear in 1947 that their culture (ancient laws and customs and village organization which they had retained would be destroyed by the Hindu Rulers of India.
Demanded a separate independent state outside the Indian union.
• Economic issues :- exploitation, indebtednes, tenants and bonded labourers – recruitment as coolies against British (Kuki
LAND ALIENATION, USURY, FORCED LABOUR, MINIMUM WAGES, LAND GRABBING CONTINUED THE MAIN ISSUE.
OTHER ISSUES DEMANDED for more and more welfare programmes, including reservation of jobs in governments offices.
SUBMITTED MEMORANDA AND ISSUED PRESS STATEMENTS
NO MOBILISATION OF TRIBALS ON LARGE SCALE
The nature of tribals movement in terms of their solidarity and the issue that they raise depends upon a variety of factors.
1. The ribals of eastern and central India have close interaction with caste-Hindus, therefore, they do not demand political status outside the Indian Union.
2. North east frontier do not have close contact with the Hindus, they embraced Christianity, and are located on the international border – they ask for secession from the Indian union.
Depends upon a number of factors, such as the locale, of the tribal groups, numerical strength of tribals, the degree of their exposure to and inter-relations with, the non-tribals.
ISSUE BASED ON DISPLACEMENT & REHABILITATION POLICY
PARTICIPANTS :- NAGA, MIZO, JHARKHAND - demanding political autonomy are dominated by the tribal educated middle class.
The tribal unrest assumes an organized character only among large homogeneous, landowning tribal communities who have a relatively strong economic base, such as Munda, the santhal, Bhil, Gond.
Very few of the primitive tribes, who rely on pre-agricultural technology, participate in such movement. These groups reach strongly to the issues concerned land or forests which they subsist.
Organization & Leadership
– Do not deal with organizational aspects
– Spontaneous which is not correct
The Santhal – attempts were made to present grievances to the Government
Numerous meetings and communication between santhal villages preceded armed revolt
Leaders come from the religious groups – proclaimed themselves as the incarnations of God. (Birsa Munda) eg.
– influenced the group
Leadership in the post independent has come from the educated tribals, Telengana, warli, the Bhoomi sena, was provided by non-tribals coming from different political group.
Local leadership has also emerged.
Communists parties of India in the case of Naxalbari movement
Socialists parties in Pardi Satyagraha played an important role in setting objectives, and programs of the tribal movements.
OVERVIEW:-
– The militancy
– Changing nature of issues
– Respect nature
– Issues of identity and ethnicity is emphasized

DEVELOPMENTAL PROJECTS, DISPLACEMENT & REHABILITATION
Development Projects
• Temples of modern India
• Cause industrial development / economic prosperity
Types of Development Projects
• Multi purpose
• Atomic purpose
• Power projects
• Iron & Steel projects
• Petrochemical
• Rural development
• Miscellaneous projects & plants
• Material progress & prosperity
• Perceived as symbols of national progress
• Facilitate generation of employment opportunities – formation of new skills, increase in income & consumption levels and improvement of infrastructure facilities
• Contribution of modification in cultural patterns, changes in old social values & traditional organizations
• Development projects – drastically redefine the land use pattern
• Induce displacement of people from their traditional habitats.
• Developmental projects – instrumental in the faster economic growth
• Dams, mines, power plants, industries, parks and sanctuaries induce varying magnitudes – of displacement of people from their traditional habitants”.

Development Project leads to:

• Effects on local employment patterns & life style of local people
• Effects on physical environment – in the form of air, water, soil & noise pollution
Impacts of Dams
• Violence to nature, upheaval of lives
• Creation of large reserviours
• Submergence of land
• Displacement of people and their live stock, loss occupations
• Stilling of flowing water bring drastic change
• Morphology / quality
• Consequence for aquatic and riparian life
• Greenhouse effect
• Danger to wild life
• Flora is also affected
• Loss of biodiversity
• Spread diseases – Malaria, Filaria
• Climatic changes
• Dam – flood
• Structure of religious, historical and cultural sub-mergers

Change in Employment patterns – affected the people in the region
Small farmers, landless laborers, Artisans & craftsman
Employment on the projects
Unskilled & skilled Workers
Three dimensional change in economy:





Industrialization of the neighboring regions
• Industrialization and Urbanization – multipurpose projects
• Generates direct employment opportunities – to skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled.
• Three fold goals of development
• Bhakra nangal project – in Punjab, Haryana
• Chambal project – M. P., Rajasthan
3 goals
• Increase of irrigation potential
• Generation of electric power for consumption
(These two have positive effect – regional and national economic development)
• Control of floods
• Actual contribution of projects to economy
III. Emergence of new townships
• Urbanization of regions (Iron and steel plants, shipyards)
• Establishment of hallmark of town life-more business luxurious lifestyle etc.,
Displacement
• Displacement – causes serious economic, social and cultural disruption of the lives
• Stress and strain
• Complete submergence of villages, houses, land & other immovable assets induced greater stress
• Dismantling of production system
• Psychological / socio cultural consequences
• Scattering of kinship groups

Displacement leads to
• Landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalisation, food insecurity, morbidity, and social disarticulation (Powerlessness & alienation)
• Impoverishment
• Impact on women
• Loss of access to fuel, fodder, food
• Experience greater pauperization & get confined to the margins of the labor market
• Children are adversely affected – not only is schooling less accessible
• Disruption in the traditional socialization process
Example :- In reservoir projects – development leads to landlessness, marginalisation, and permanent joblessness after displacement
• Upper Krishna irrigation – project in Karnataka
• Submerged land
• Displacement
• Family dislocation
• New modern port in Navi Mumbai (JNP)
• Villages in raigad district
• Adjacent to greater mumbai – land included privately owned agriculture and saltpan land, government owned saltpan and revenue land
• Preland acquisition – agriculture, saltpan, fishing were carried, occupation in near industries such as Thane, Panvel, Mumbai.
• Changes after acquisition – landlessness and marginlisation
• Port was required to give employment who lost land
• Loading, unloading and other contract related activities in the port

• Most of the fisherman could not find job in the industry
• Strategy – only those who owned and thus lost more land were given employment.
• Small and marginal farmers and fisherman were affected seriously.
• Unused land was given to the builders
Problems
• Environmental Degradation – by loss of land, houses & sources of livelihood to local people & disruption of their life styles causing miseries and agonies to them.
• Displacement of tribal, farmers, artisans, and laborers from the land
• Miseries and nightmarish experiences of the evicted persons
• Migration of village & tribal population – different social climate
• Formation of slums – social evils
• Fate of displaced persons
• Migration – poor income, lack of employment, hard conditions of life, formation of slums

REHABILITATION
The social implications of developmental projects are two fold viz.
• Issues associated with eviction and displacement.
• Problems of resettlement and rehabilitation
Negative aspects of Rehabilitation programme
• Financial liability – cash compensation – inadequate insignificant
• No compensation is given for the loss of employment
• Nothing is paid for the landless laborers, marginal cultivators
• Ignorant and illiteracy of villagers and tribals – give – little period for vacating
• Most of the people spend money lavishly (given as compensation)

Positive points of rehabilitation :-
• There must be provision for compensating land for land
• Resettlement in the neighboring region
• Adequate compensation in cash
• Provision for employment
• Preservation of their culture
• Removal of poverty
Incase of Sardar Sarovar project, rehabilitation scheme is as follows :-
• Land for land
• Provision for recognisation of customary rights of land users who have no legal title to the land
• Provision for recognisation of the customary rights of landless laborers
• Provision for basic amenities for facilities of civic life such as supply of drinking water, public schools and hospitals

Refer to Acquisition .pdf – scanned

Environmental Social Movements
• In the South, the environmental movements are around issues, related to subsistence
• Environmental social protests are against such infringement of customary rights that threaten the survival of the people at subsistence levels. This forms the basis for organized social movements in the South.
• Certain movements within in India have come to be identified with environmental issues, these are :-
• Balipal :- This missile firing range set up by the Ministry of Defence became a target for environmental protest.
• Chipko :- The forest contractors that logged for timber in the Himalayan foothills became the focus for the environmental protest. It became famous because of the novel method of human clinging to forest trees.
• Narmada :- Construction of Sardar Sarovar dam becomes the focus for environmental struggle as the local tribals were to be displaced by the dam.
• Fish workers agitation :- Struggle fisher folk against mechanized deep-sea fishing by trawlers is headed by a man of the church.
• The unique thing about these struggles is they take on the state as an advisory. Inspite of their fight against the state, they have managed to remain as mainstream movements.
• Strategy :-
• Adoption of Satyagraha, Jail Bharo & Morchas.
• These methods of protest have gained legitimacy as democratic and non-violent methods of protest during the Indian freedom struggle.
• All these movements have not turned violent against the state property and agencies in spite of extreme provocation by the state. They have been able to sustain their followings and media sympathies for over a decade.
Issues
• Infringement of customary rights due to transfer of ownership of natural resources due to various developmental projects.
• New micro-environmental struggles in newer development projects are taking place in India.
• The struggle against Dabhol power project and the agitation of the Gorai island residents are a case in point.
• The environmental movements within the new social movements are identified by the concern expressed by groups of people, about depletion of water, degradation of land and other changes in ecosystems affecting traditional patterns of natural resources exploitation
Features of the movements :-
• They combine environment and subsistence issues with issues of social justice. The underlying assumption is threatening the urban and economic sector that has usurped the environmental sector and rural livelihood.
• Mobilization within the movement is against the degradation of the physical environment
• The form of mobilization is that of direct action. Dharnas, law courts, hunger strikes, jail bharo are few strategies involved
• Underwritten ideology :- Indigenous Gandhian ideology dominates. The ethical concerns are for dignity of life and right to survival for all, with special emphasis on survival of marginal groups especially women. Women play a critical role as actors.
• Leaders or even passive supports of the movement. The leadership for these movements is from outside the community and comprises of urban middle class social workers and some time religious leaders. These religious leaders are influenced by theology and bring that within the ideology of the movement.
Categories of the Environmental Movement
• Forest and land-based Issues
• Right of access to forest resources
• Non-commercial use of natural resources
• Prevention of land degradation
• Social justice / human rights
• Examples:- Chipco, Appico tribal movements all over the country
• Marine resources and fisheries, aquaculture issues
• Ban on trwaling, preventing commercialization of shrimp and pawn culture
• Protection of marine resources
• Implementation of coastal zone regulations
• Examples:- National Fisherman forum, working for traditional fisher-folk on Kerala, Orissa
• Industrial Pollution Issues:-
• Stricter pollution control measures, compensation
• Prevention of reckless expansion of industries without considering design, locational factors and livelihood issues of local population
• Examples:- Zahiro gas morcha in Bhopal; Ganga Mukti Andolan in Bihar.
• Development Projects
• Dams and Irrigation projects (Silent valley movement by KSSP, Narmada Bachao Andolan)
Issues
• Protection of tropical forests
• Ecological Balance
• Destructive Development
• Rehabilitation and the resettlement of the displaced
• Power Projects (Jan Andolan Dabhol against Enron) Issues
• Ecological balance
• Rehabilitation and resettlement, high costs
• Mining (Anti-time project in Doon Valley)
• Depletion of natural resources
• Industrial plants / Railway projects / Airport project (projects and demands of kakana)
• Issues
• Land degradation
• Ecological imbalance
• Realignment
• Rehabilitation and resettlement of the displaced
• Ecological balance
• Military bases (Anti-missile test range in Bihar) Issues
• Ecological balance
• Rehabilitation
• Resettlement and safety
• Wild life sanctuaries, national parks :- Issues
• Displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement, loss of livelihood
Example:- Ekjoot in Bhimshankar region of Maharashtra
• Tourism :- Issues:-
• Displacement, Cultural changes and social ills
Example:- Himachal Bachao Andolan
• Advocacy groups / individual campaigns, citizen’s action groups :- Issues
• Policy inputs, stricter measures for protected areas
• Clear policy on national park and wildlife sanctuaries, lobbying, research, training and documentation on wild life, conservation, education, community – based environmental management. Publications on environmental issues
• Example :- Society for clean city, Mumbai
• Appropriate technology / Organic forming Issues:-
• International debates
• Sustainable development
• Eco-friendly models of development
• Low cost, environmental friendly housing and technology
• Example :- Laurie Baker’s housing experiments, People’s science Institute, Dehradun
• Environmental issues are related with the nature of development
• Development agenda in India is closely related to the International political economy
• Environmental movements raise a variety of issues both in rural and urban areas related to forest, agriculture, industrial pollution, nuclear tests, tourism as explained above
• There are a number of non-government organizations (NGO’s) that protest against environmental degradation and hazards.
• These organizations campaign for creating awareness among people on the issues of environment
• Organizations like the kerala people’s science movement try to demystify the science created by a dominant group of scientists. It advocates sustainable development.
• The KPSM organizes padyatras to develop consciousness for a people-oriented environment.
• They disseminate literature related to pollution ; land degradation, loss of natural resources etc.,

Role of Media in Environmental Movement

• Print Media :-
• It has played a very important role in focusing attention of the people regarding the problems of environment
• Several newspapers and magazines have started regular columns on subjects like ecology, environmental pollution, afforestations, wild life, conservations and development
• Leading newspapers “The Times of India”, “The Hindustan Times”, “The Hindu”, “The Indian Express”, “The Statesman”, The Tribune have been regularly disseminating information about environmental issues.
• Magazines like Yojna, Kurukshetra, Vidura, Down to Earth etc., have been presenting thought provoking articles and reviews on the issues pertaining to environment
• The Hindi language and regional press have also been highlighting environmental issues and guiding the people activities at the grass root level
• Teleserials like “Rakshak” “Virasat” our inheritance, cultural heritage etc., have been useful sources of information and enlightenment to the audience.
• That apart, talks, interviews and panel discussions organized by Doordarshan have also been useful to audience to gain new insight and outlook in regard to environmental pollution.
• AIR has also been providing talks, discussions etc.,
• Special emphasis is given to non-formal environmental education through seminars, symposia, workshops, training programs, eco-camps, audio-visual shows etc.,
• National environmental campaigns are also being organized by the Ministry since July, 1986.
• Leaders:-
• Sunderlal Bahuguna, Medha Patkar, Anil Aggarwal, Vandana Shiva and jouranlists like Bharat Dogra have gone a long way in creating awareness about different aspects of environmental problems.

CHIPKO ANDOLAN MOVEMENT
• Introduction :-
• Chipko Andolan (Movement) was the first important environmental campaign in the Uttarakhand region of Himalayas in our country in early 1973
• The term “Chipko” is a Hindi expression, which means to hug, or, embrace the trees and protect them from being cut.
• The movement was launched by Dashouli Town Liberation Organization also known as Dashouli Gram Swarajya Mandal from Himachal Pradesh.
• Issues
• The illegal poachers and contractors were recklessly and ruthlessly destroying the forest including valuable natural resources
• Leadership
• Under leadership of Guara Bai, a mass movement was launched, in which, the rural women embraced trees with a view to prevent tree cutting
• Strategy
• In 1987, every tree was embraced by 3 to 4 women and children shouting that “they will have to be cut before cutting the trees.
• This brought the movement into national limelight and culminated in government intervention by way of 15 years’ moratorium and commercial cutting of trees
• Ideology
• The movement is based on the Gandhian principle of non-violence (ahimsa), and created environmental public awareness

Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP)
• KSSP:-
• It is considered to be the most well organized non-governmental organization
• It has more than 4000 members and as many as 250 units in Kerala for scientific study of environmental issues and also for creating environmental public awareness.
• KSPP made a significant contribution to the scientific study of the environmental pollution around the city of Kochi.
• They took survey of air, water, and soil pollution, assessed the damage, caused, and created environmental public awareness and convinced the city dwellers to stop further environmental degradation and deterioration.
• It adopts novel strategies, such as, street corner theaters, folk arts, exhibitions, sideshows, songs, dances, village meetings, demonstrations, and mass circulation magazines etc.,
• KSSP championed the environmental movement against Silent Valley Project in Kerala highlighting the genetic significance of rain forests for conservation.
• It enlisted the support of general NGOs, youth organizations, intellectuals, and scientists.
• It received whole-hearted support of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• KSSP established the direct link between the environmental issues and the needs and requirements of the future generations.
• It, therefore, highlighted the importance of protecting the environment from the menace of its degradation and preserving it for exploitation by the coming generations.
• It popularized the following theme among the people “We have not inherited the earth from our parents, we have borrowed it from our children. Hence environment must be preserved and conserved for exploitation by our children in the future.

NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN

• NBA :-
• NBA is a people’s movement forward from local people’s movements in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
• Though peaceful means, the NBA has brought much media attention to the plight of the native people along the river. Medha Patkar is a prominent leader of the group.
• Organization :-
• In 1985, Medha Patkar and others formed the Narmada Ghati Dharangrast Samiti in Maharashtra, working with some thirty-three tribal villages at risk from the Sardar Sarovar dam.
• They demanded proper rehabilitation and the right to be informed about which areas were to be submerged.
• There was also a Gandhian group called the Narmada Ghati Nav Nirman Samiti that worked in the villages of the Nimad plains in Madhya Pradesh.
• Issue:-
• It involves construction of 30 large dams, 35 medium sized dams and 3000 small dams.
• It will submerge 900000 hectares of land, including 300000 hectares of forest land and 200000 hectares of farm land.
• Most of which are from Nimar – an ancient and a very fertile agricultural belt in the country
• In addition to these about 140000 peasants, are likely to be affected by the construction of canals etc., (the 75000 Km. long canal network alone will require about 73000 hectares of land).
• Several thousands of fishermen living downsteam will also be adversely affected
• It will submerge 245 villages (19 in Gujarat, 33 in Maharashtra, and 193 in Madhya Pradesh). It will result into displacement of over a lakh people, mostly tribals.
• The overwhelming majority of them are tribal people
• Most of them are dependent on primitive agriculture, gathering forest produce and grazing livestock in the forests. The degree of commcialization is very minimal. These people (mostly Bhils and Bhilalas) have waged an incessant struggle throughout history to retain hold over these forests and hills. This struggle has both shaped their identity and formed a strong attachment to their lands.
• Perhaps none understand the land and the forests, its potentials and products and methods of using them on a sustainable basis better than these people.
• The dam first threatens to submerge the forests, i.e., the home of the adivasis and when it reaches its full projected height will submerge the lands of the peasant villages further upstream.
• There have been suggestions for reducing the height of the dam so as to reduce the submergence area.
• But that might only save the peasant villages and whatever the height of the darn the adivasi settlements will be submerged
• Over a lakh of people, mostly tribals, being in the submergence area, were not adequately and properly resettled and rehabilitated.
• That environmental damages of constructing such huge dams would be huge
• Baba Amte and the noted writer Arundhati Roy, among others, became involved and associated with the NBA.
• Tactics:-
• The NBA organized mass public meetings, hunger strikes, rallies, and intellectual debates and thereby created environmental public awareness against the project. The matter was ultimately resolved by the intervention of the Supreme Court of India.

Role of Media
• The media has a tremendous influence in shaping public attitudes and beliefs, “The media in any democratic country play an important public service function by providing a platform for advocacy and for awareness generation.
• Issues such as the Narmada Bachao Andolan have remained in focus because the mass media continue to cover them prominently.
• Groups and their problems remain invisible beyond their immediate geographies unless they are talked about in the media.
• When the media take note, opinion makers take note, and they in turn influence communities and policy makers and implementers. “We need very strong advocacy effort to influence people to make changes, and advocacy cannot work without the support of the mass media.
• Three basic problems have hampered advocacy efforts in this grea
• General invisibility in the media
• Reporting without real understanding of the issues
• Stereotyping
• To chronicle the history of the resistance movement against the dams through press release, images, interviews, film, books, reports and other media By organizing art performances such as skits, plays, and dance dramas
• To record art including creative writing, poetry, painting and songs
• Books on Narmada Straggle:-
• In 1999, writer Arundhati Roy wrote a celebrated essay, “Greater Common Good” in which she brilliantly vivisects the politics behind the Sardar Sarovar Project.
The essay resulted in a great deal of discussion in the media

WOMEN’S MOVEMENT

Issues:- Atrocities against women in the forms of
Violence against women:-
• Domestic Violence
• Dowry Harassment & murder
• Widowhood
• Sati
• Child Marriage
• Physical Torture and Mental Torture
• Criminal Violence
• Rape
• Abduction
• Prostitution
• Social Violence
• Female Infanticide
• Eve Teasing
• Burning of witches
Other Issues:-
• Alcoholism and wife beating
• Problems of working women – Sexual harassment, improper wages, long-hours of work
• Oppression and exploitation of Dalit and minority women
• Communalism
• Obscene posters
• Problems of maid-servants
• System of temple prostitution
• Deforestations
• Harassment of women under trials and prisoners
• Health issues of women – suffer from ill health and mal-nutrition
• Cultural oppression of women tribal and problems of women in slums
• Right to decision making:-
• Women has no choice in relation to important events in her life such as marriage, parenthood, family planning, participation in community activities and divorce
• Right to knowledge:-
• Women are generally ignorant about functioning of their bodies especially, the reproductive system.
• Lack of sex education and the consequent faulty attitude towards sex
• Sexuality increases morbidity rate in women
• Awareness of legal rights:-
• Dowry Prohibition Act 1961
• Hindu Marriage Act of 1955
• Suppression of immoral traffic act (SITA)
• Uniform civil court
• Minimum wages act
• Equal remuneration act
• Insurance – state insurance act
• Right for the adoption
• Property inheritance act
• Medical termination of pregnancy act
Political rights
• 30% reservation
• Women has also entered into the political aspects as voters, legislators and leaders
• Other rights
• Right to survival – Female Feticide & Female Infanticide
• Right to education
• Right to liberty and security of the person
• Exploitation at the work place
• Selection of a career
• Choice of a partner in marriage
• Problem of dowry - Violence due to dowry
• Current situation as regards dowry



• Patterns of Mobilizations:- To mobilize public opinion for women’s rights and against innumerable forms of women’s oppression, they issue
• Leaflets
• Pamphlets,
• Collect signatures in support of their demands
• Write articles in various journals and newspapers
• Try to get media coverage,
• Organize protest rallies
• Sit-ins and demonstrations
• Role of Media :- The women group have discovered narrating and acting the violence in the form of
• story form,
• Reciting poetry
• Involving songs
• Slide shows
• In the context of rising religious chauvinism
• Exhibitions
• Documentary films and Dramas on selective abortion of female fetuses, bride burning, sexual assault, sati and coercion in family planning programs have sensitized large sections of society
• Several campaigns were launched against the degrading portrayal of women in films and against newspapers for reports on victims of violence which concentrated on their looks, dress on nature
• Dialogues with media persons through letters to the editors of national newspapers, through lectures initiated by the mass communication institutes and through panel discussions have helped to create an atmosphere of trust and many suggestions of the women’s movement have been incorporated in the unwritten code of conduct of the communication media
• Street-corner meetings
• Street plays
• Skits and songs
• Poster – exhibitions and tours
• Started non-commercial journals
• Magazines and news letters in various regional languages like
• Gujarati, Marati, Kannada, Bengali, Hindi etc.,
• To focus on specific problems of women, they have evolved special interest groups working in the field of
• health, media, law, violence against women, women squatters etc.,