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Mass Communication and Diplomacy
In this study diplomacy refers to a communication system through which representatives of states and international or global actors, including elected and appointed officials, express and defend their interests, state their grievances, and issue threats and ultimatums. It is a channel of contact for clarifying positions, probing for information, and convincing states and other actors to support one's position.1 Up until the 20th century, diplomacy was secret, highly formal, institutional, and interpersonal ( Nicolson, 1963; Barston, 1997). In his famous "Fourteen Points" speech of 1918, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson advocated "open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view" ( Williams, 1971 , p. 79). Exposing diplomacy to the media and public opinion created a "new diplomacy" with new rules, techniques, and immense implications for government officials, diplomats, journalists, and the public ( Claude, 1965; Pearce, 1995; Hindell, 1995; Eban, 1998).
In this study diplomacy refers to a communication system through which representatives of states and international or global actors, including elected and appointed officials, express and defend their interests, state their grievances, and issue threats and ultimatums. It is a channel of contact for clarifying positions, probing for information, and convincing states and other actors to support one's position.1 Up until the 20th century, diplomacy was secret, highly formal, institutional, and interpersonal ( Nicolson, 1963; Barston, 1997). In his famous "Fourteen Points" speech of 1918, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson advocated "open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view" ( Williams, 1971 , p. 79). Exposing diplomacy to the media and public opinion created a "new diplomacy" with new rules, techniques, and immense implications for government officials, diplomats, journalists, and the public ( Claude, 1965; Pearce, 1995; Hindell, 1995; Eban, 1998).