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ADVANCED COMPUTERS NOTES
Harbir Singh
1.1 Internet
The global network of interconnected computer networks used by billions of users for sharing of
information and resources is called the Internet.
The ‘Internet Protocol Suite’ (TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) which is a
set of rules that govern the working of the internet.
It connects millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks from
local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking
technologies.
Nobody owns the Internet. But the Internet Society, a non-profit group established in 1992,
oversees the formation of policies and protocols that define how we use and interact with the
Internet.
ISP (Internet Service Provider) company that provides Internet connection services through its
equipment and communications lines for a monthly fee or by amount of use. (Eg: Sify
Broadband, Tata Indicom, your Local Cable Operator Providing internet facility etc)
1.2 Web
The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known as the Web, is a system of
interlinked Hypertext documents accessed via the Internet.
The ‘www’ is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet.
The Web also utilizes Web Browsers [Internet Explorer. Firefox Mozilla, Google Chrome etc] to
access Web documents called Web pages that are linked to each other via hyperlinks.Thus
one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and
navigate between them by using hyperlinks.
The Web uses the Hypertext Transfer protocol (HTTP), only one of the languages spoken over
the Internet, to transmit data.
Web Services, which use HTTP to allow applications to communicate in order to exchange
business logic, use the Web to share information.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the main International Standards Organization for
the World Wide Web which also engages in education and outreach, develops software and
serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web.
1.3 The Difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web
Most of us use the terms Internet and World Wide Web (aka. the Web) interchangeably, but in
fact the two terms, although relative, are not synonymous.
The ‘Internet’ is the global network of networks while the ‘World Wide Web’ is only a way of
accessing information over the medium of the Internet. The Web is just one of the ways that
information can be disseminated over the Internet. The Internet, not the Web, is also used
for e-mail, which relies on Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Usenet newsgroups,Instant
messaging and File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
So the Web is just a portion of the Internet, albeit a large portion, but the two terms are not
synonymous and should not be confused
1.4 HTML and HTTP
HTML
Hypertext Markup Languageis a computer language devised to create websites that can be
viewed by anyone connected to the Internet. HTML like any other Language, has code-words
and syntax.It is relatively easy to learn, yet quite powerful in what it allows you to create your
own WebPages. It is constantly undergoing revision and evolution to meet the demands and
requirements of the growing Internet audience under the direction of the W3C, the
organization charged with designing and maintaining the language.
Hypertext is the method by which you move around on the web by clicking on special text
called hyperlinks which take you to the next page. The fact that it ishyper just means it is not
lineari.e. you can go to any place on the Internet whenever you want by clicking on links –
and that there is no set order to do things in.
Markup is what HTML tags do to the text inside them. They mark it as a certain type of text.
(For example: <b>Bold</b> makes the text Bold).
HTML consists of a series of short codes typed into a text-file by the site author which are called
the tags. The text is then saved as an html file, and viewed through a browser, like Internet
Explorer or Netscape Navigator. This browser reads the file and translates the text into a visible
form rendering the page as the author had intended. Writing your ownHTML entails using tags
correctly to create your vision. You can use anything from a rudimentary text-editor to a
powerful graphical editor to create HTML pages.
The tags are what separate normal text from HTML code. You might know them as the words
between the <angle-brackets>. Different tags will perform different functions. The tags
themselves don’t appear when you view your page through a browser, but their effects do.
The simplest tags do nothing more than apply formatting to some text, like this:
Code:<b>these words will be bold</b>, and these will not.
Output: these words will be bold, and these will not.
Cascading Style sheets are used to control how your pages are presented, and make pages
more accessible. Basic special effects and interaction is provided by JavaScript, which adds
a lot of power to basic HTML.
HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.
HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web
servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you
enter a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing
it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.
HTML is the other main standard that controls how the World Wide Web works, controlling how
Web pages are formatted and displayed.
HTTP is called a stateless protocol because each command is executed independently,
without any knowledge of the commands that came before it. This is the main reason that it is
difficult to implement Web sites that react intelligently to user input. This shortcoming of HTTP is
being addressed in a number of new technologies,
including ActiveX,Java,JavaScriptand cookies.
Video & Television
Production
What is Video Production?
What you see on the television or film screen is the end result of
video production work. Video production includes everything from
coming up with an idea for a show, film, video, or commercial to getting the final product in the
consumer’s hands. Just a few of the steps in this process include: preparing the script, shooting the
video, digitizing raw footage for editing, rearranging the digitized clips to tell the story, adding
animations, creating sound effects, automatic dialogue replacement (ADR or looping) to create a
realistic soundtrack, and putting the finished work on film or disc for distribution.
The Production Process
The production process refers to the stages (phases) required to complete a media product, from the idea
to the final master copy. The process can apply to any type of media production including film, video,
television and audio recording. The stages in each medium vary; for example, there is obviously no
storyboard in an audio recording. However the same general concepts work for any medium.
The three main stages of production are:
1. Pre-production: Planning, scripting & storyboarding, etc.
2. Production: The actual shooting/recording.
3. Post-production: Everything between production and creating the final master copy.
Other stages include:
Financing: This happens before pre-production, and involves budget forecasting, finding investors,
etc.
Screenplay: This can be considered a separate stage before pre-production.
Distribution: After post-production, delivering the content to the audience (e.g. film prints, CD/DVD,
etc).
Pre-Production
Pre-production is a fairly loose term which refers to the tasks undertaken before production begins.
Exactly what is included in this stage depends on the medium and situation.
For a small video company, pre-production may refer to everything that happens before shooting begins,
for example, meeting with the client, research, storyboarding, location planning, etc.
For feature films, pre-production is more specific and only begins when other milestones have been met
such as financing, screenplay, casting and major staffing. In this case pre-production includes:
Location scouting
Prop and wardrobe identification and preparation
Special effects identification and preparation
Production schedule
Set construction
Script-locking (semi-finalization of the script)
Script read-through with cast, director and other interested parties
Production
In film and video, production refers to the part of the process in which footage is recorded. This is what
most people imagine when they think of a film being made — actors on sets, cameras rolling, etc. The
production phase is also known as principal photography.
In large feature films the beginning of the production phase marks the "point of no return", i.e. the point at
which it is no longer financially viable to cancel the project. At this point it is almost always cheaper to
continue until the project is finished than to deal with the financial fall-out of canceling.
The goal of principal photography is obviously to record all required shots, however it is fairly common to
shoot "pick-up" shots in post-production. Pick-up shots may be required when a mistake is noticed, a
script change is made (this is unusual), or even if a performance is deemed to be unsatisfactory.
In music, production usually refers to the creative direction of a project. Unlike a film producer who is
more of a manager, a music producer has a very hands-on role in the creative development.
Post-Production
Post-production is the third and final major phase of the production process. It is often referred to simply
as post, e.g. "We can sort that out in post".
There are many things which can happen in post-production. Common tasks include:
Editing video footage
Editing the soundtrack, adding sound effects, music, etc.
Adding titles and graphics
Color and exposure correction
Adding special effects
Re-shooting certain scenes if required ("pick-up" shots)
In some cases post-production is relatively straightforward, consisting of choosing and arranging footage
in the correct sequence. In most cases however, post-production is a time-consuming job taking longer
than the actual production phase.
Camera Moves
Here is an outline of the standard types of camera movement in film and
video. In the real world, many camera moves use a combination of
these techniques simultaneously.
Crab A less-common term for tracking or trucking.
Dolly The camera is mounted on a cart which travels along
tracks for a very smooth movement. Also known as
a tracking shot or trucking shot.
Dolly Zoom A technique in which the camera moves closer or further
from the subject while simultaneously adjusting the zoom
angle to keep the subject the same size in the frame.
Follow The camera physically follows the subject at a more or less
constant distance.
Pan Horizontal movement, left and right.
Pedestal (Ped) Moving the camera position vertically with respect to the
subject.
Tilt Vertical movement of the camera angle, i.e. pointing the
camera up and down (as opposed to moving the whole
camera up and down).
Track Roughly synonymous with the dolly shot, but often
defined more specifically as movement which stays a
constant distance from the action, especially side-to-side
movement.
Truck Another term for tracking or dollying.
Zoom Technically this isn't a camera move, but a change in the
lens focal length with gives the illusion of moving the
camera closer or further away.
Video Camera Filters
Camera filters are transparent or translucent optical elements which are either attached to the front of the
lens or included as part of the lens housing. Filters alter the properties of light before it reaches the
CCD-ChargedCoupleDevice.
Filters can be used to correct problems with light or to create certain effects.
Common types of filter include:
eutral Density (D)
A color-neutral filter which absorbs light evenly throughout the visible spectrum.
Used to reduce the amount of light coming through the lens in strong lighting
situations.
Ultra Violet (UV)
Video cameras are sensitive to both visible light and ultra violet (UV) light. UV is
invisible to humans but it can create a blue tinge and/or washed-out effect on
video, especially outside. A UV filter removes UV light while leaving visible light
intact. UV filters are also commonly used as a protective filter for the lens.
Polarizing
A special type of lens which removes polarized light, reducing the washed-out
effect sometimes created by reflected light. This results in more saturated, vibrant
colors. Polarized filters are usually mounted with a rotational adjustment to align
the polarization.
Diffusion
Effectively blurs the image for a slightly soft look. A mild diffusion filter can be
used to soften faces (remove wrinkles etc), a stronger filter can be used to create a
dream-sequence effect.
Sepia
Creates a sepia-tone effect, commonly used to depict historical images or
flashbacks.
Fog
Creates a fog effect.
Color Conversion /
Correction
Adjusts the color temperature of the light.
Star Effect
Makes single points of light stretch out in various star patterns. This effect is
created by numerous fine etches in the filter, and can be used to give a dramatic,
sophisticated or glamorous look to the image.
Audio
Virtually all consumer-level cameras come with built-in microphones, usually hi-fi stereo. These work fine,
and are all you need for most general work.
Getting better results with audio is actually quite difficult and is a whole subject in itself. We won't go into it
much here — you just need to be aware that audio is very important and shouldn't be overlooked.
If you're keen, try plugging an external microphone into the "mic input" socket of your camera (if it has
one). There are two reasons why you might want to do this:
1. You may have a mic which is more suited to the type of work you are doing than the camera's built-in
mic. Often, the better mic will simply be mounted on top of the camera.
2. You might need to have the mic in a different position to the camera. For example, when covering a
speech, the camera could be at the back of the room with a long audio lead running to the stage,
where you have a mic mounted on the pedestal.
The level at which your audio is recorded is important. Most cameras have an "auto-gain control", which
adjusts the audio level automatically. Consumer-level cameras are usually set up like this, and it works
well in most situations. If you have a manual audio level control, it's a good idea to learn how to use it
(more on this later).
If possible, try to keep the background (ambient) noise level more or less consistent. This adds
smoothness to the flow of the production. Of course, some shots will require sudden changes in ambient
audio for effect.
Listen to what people are saying and build it into the video. Try not to start and finish shots while
someone is talking — there's nothing worse than a video full of half-sentences.
Be very wary of background music while shooting — this can result is music that jumps every time the
shot changes, like listening to a badly scratched record. If you can, turn the music right down or off.
One more thing... be careful of wind noise. Even the slightest breeze can ruin your audio. Many cameras
have a "low-cut filter", sometimes referred to as a "wind-noise filter" or something similar. These do help,
but a better solution is to block the wind. You can use a purpose-designed wind sock, or try making one
yourself.
Video Camera Shutter
The term shutter comes from still photography, where it describes a mechanical "door" between the
camera lens and the film. When a photo is taken, the door opens for an instant and the film is exposed to
the incoming light. The speed at which the shutter opens and closes can be varied
speed, the shorter the period of time the shutter is open, and the less light falls on the film.
Shutter speed is measured in fractions of a se
open for one sixtieth of a second. A speed of 1/500 is faster, and 1/10000 is very fast indeed.
Video camera shutters work quite differently from still film camera shutters but the result is basically
same. (The technical difference is that, rather than using a mechanical device, the shutter speed is
adjusted by electronically varying the amount of time the
nothing to you, don't worry. It really doesn't matter
The shutter "opens" and "closes" once for each frame of video; that is, 25 times per second for PAL and
30 times per second for NTSC. Thus, if a camera has its shutter set to 1/60, each frame will be exposed
for 1/60 second. If the speed is increased to 1/120, each frame will be exposed for 1/120 of a second.
Remember, the shutter speed does not affect the frame rate, which is
cases always stays the same.
The main effect of higher shutter speeds is that individual frames appear sharper, due to the minimisation
of motion blur. Motion blur occurs when the subject moves within the frame while the sh
less time the shutter is open (i.e. the faster the shutter speed), the less movement will take place.
One side-effect of higher shutter speeds is that movement appears more jerky. This is because motion
blur tends to smooth consecutive frames together.
The three shots below were each taken as the car travelled past a stationary camera at 100 km/hr. With
the shutter off, motion blur is most pronounced. As the shutter speed is increased, the image becomes
sharper.
Shutter Off
Higher shutter speeds are common in sports coverage. Watch any fast
shutter effect. Notice how the slow-motion replays look, especially when they freeze the last frame.
Note: As a result of the reduced exposure time with high shutter speeds, the image may appear darker
unless the iris is opened to compensate.
1. Most cameras have a single set frame rate which depe
manufactured for. PAL cameras use 25 fps, NTSC cameras use 30 (29.97) fps. Some cameras can swap
between 25 and 30 fps, and some specialist cameras have a higher frame rate, e.g. super
cameras operate at 75 or more frames per second. In most cases though, your camera will have a single
set frame rate that you never have to worry about.
Framing
second. A speed of 1/60 second means that the shutter is
CCD is allowed to build a cha
how the shutter works, it's the effect it has that counts.)
completely separate and in most
. rames 1/120 second 1/500 second
fast-action sport to see the "flickering"
depends on the TV standard of the country they are
— the faster the
cond. the
charge. If this means
shutter is open. The
nds super-slow-mo
Shots are all about composition. Rather than
image. As mentioned previously, framing is the process of creating composition.
Notes:
Framing technique is very subjective. What one person finds dramatic, another may find pointless.
What we're looking at here are a few accepted industry guidelines which you
thumb.
The rules of framing video images are essentially the same as those for still photography.
Basic shot types
There is a general convention in the video industry which assigns names to the most common types of
shots. The names and their exact meanings may vary, but the following examples give a rough guide to
the standard descriptions. The point isn't knowing the
as much as understanding their purposes
Basic shots are referred to in terms relative to the subject. For example, a "close up" has to be a close
up of something. A close up of a person could also be described as a wide shot of a face, or a very wide
shot of a nose.
The subject in all of the following shots is a boy
pointing the camera at the subject, you need to
should use as rules of
names of the shot types (although it's very useful),
purposes.
d standing in front of a house.
EWS (Extreme Wide Shot)
In the EWS, the view is so far from the subject that
he isn't even visible. The point of this shot is to
show the subject's surroundings. The EWS is often
used as an establishing shot — the first shot
new scene, designed to show the audience where
the action is taking place.
VWS (Very Wide Shot)
The very wide shot is much closer to the subject
than an extreme wide shot, but still much further
away than a wide shot. The subject is visible here
but only just (in this case it's a boy leaning against
the fence). The emphasis is very much on placing
him in his environment. This often works as an
establishing shot, in which the audience is shown
the whole setting so they can orient themselves
compose an
of a
, .
WS (Wide Shot)
In the WS, the subject takes up the full frame. In
this case, the boy's feet are almost at the bottom
frame, and his head is almost at the top. Obviously
the subject doesn't take up the whole width of the
frame, since this is as close as we can get without
losing any part of him. The small amount of room
above and below the subject can be thought of as
safety room — you don't want to be cutting the top
of the head off. It would also look uncomfortable if
the feet and head were exactly at the top and
bottom of frame
emotion or intense concentration. It also works well when the intent
it is frequently used by television news presenters. You will often see a story begin with a MS of the
reporter (providing information), followed by closer shots of interview subjects (providing reactions and
emotion
of
MS (Mid Shot)
The MS shows some part of the subject in more
detail, whilst still showing enough for the audience
to feel as if they were looking at the whole subject.
In fact, this is an approximation of how you would
see a person "in the flesh" if you were having a
casual conversation. You wouldn't be paying any
attention to their lower body, so that part of the
picture is unnecessary, The MS is appropriate
when the subject is speaking without too much
is to deliver information, which is why
MCU (Medium Close Up)
Half way between a MS and a CU. This shot
shows the face more clearly, without getting
uncomfortably close
CU(Close Up)
In the closeup shot, a certain feature or part of
the subject takes up most of the frame. A close
up of a person usually means a close up of their
ual ,
face (unless specified otherwise).Close
as a cut-in.A close-up of a person emphasi
more appropriate for delivering facts and general informa
which convey
into the subject's
shares their feelings
CA (Cutaway)
A cutaway is a shot that's usually of something other
than the current action. It could be a different subject
(e.g. these children), a CU of a different
subject (e.g. a CU of the subject's hands), or just
about anything else. The CA is used as a "buffer"
between shots (to help the editing process), or to
add interest/information.
Close-ups are obviously useful for showing detail and can also be used
emphasizes their emotional state. Whereas a mid-shot
information, a close-up exaggerates facial expressions
emotion. The viewer is drawn
personal space and
ECU (Extreme Close Up)
You would normally need a specific reason to get
this close. It is too close to show general reactions
or emotion except in very dramatic scenes.
part of the
Cut-In
Shows some (other) part of the subject in
detail.Like a cutaway, but specifically refers to
showing some part of the subject in detail.
Can be used purely as an edit point, or to
emphasise emotion etc. For example, hand
movements can show enthusiasm, agitation,
nervousness, etc
or wide-shot is
erates ,
side facing the camera, you get the idea that these people
have equal prominence in the frame, the implication is that they will provide equal input. Of course this
doesn't always apply, for example, there are many instances in which it's obvious one of the people is a
presenter and the other is a guest. In any case, the two
A two-shot could also involve movement or action. It is a good way to follow the interaction between two
people without getting distracted by their sur
Two-Shot
There are a few variations on this
basic idea is to have a comfortable shot of two
people. Often used in interviews, or when two
presenters are hosting a show.
A "One-Shot" could be a mid-shot
these subjects. A "Three-Shot", unsurprisingly,
contains three people. Two-shots are good for
establishing a relationship between subjects. If
you see two sports presenters standing side by
are going to be the show's co
two-shot is a natural way to introduce two people.
surroundings
(OSS) Over-the-Shoulder Shot
This shot is framed from behind a person
who is looking at the subject. The person
facing the subject should usually occupy
about 1/3 of the frame.
This shot helps to establish the position of
each person, and get the feel of looking at
one person from the other's point of
view.It's common to cut between these
shots during a conversation, alternating the
view between the different speakers
Noddy Shot
Usually refers to a shot of the interviewer
listening and reacting to the subject.
Common in interviews, this is a shot of the
person listening and reacting to the subject.
In fact, when shooting interviews with one
camera, the usual routine is to shoot the
subject (using OSS and one
entire interview, then shoot some noddies
of the interviewer once the interview is
finished and are edited into the interview
later.
one, but the
of either of
co-hosts. As they
er's istening one-shots) for the
In this type of shot the subject is the weather. The sky takes up at least 2/3 of the frame. This type of shot
is common in television programs where the weather is of particular interest, e.g. sports
Although the usual purpose of this shot is to show the weather, it is also useful as an establishing shot,
for setting the general mood or for overlaying graphics.A weather shot doesn't have to show the sky.
Other shots often used to illustrate weat
Puddles, drain spouts or any example of rainwater flow
People sunbathing, Snowmen, snowball fights, snow sledding, etc.
Some Rules of Framing
Look for horizontal and vertical lines in the frame (e.g. the horizon, poles, etc). Make sure the horizontals
are level, and the verticals are straight up and down (unless of course you're purposely going for a
effect).
THE RULE OF THIRDS: This rule divides the frame into nine sections, as in the first frame below.
Points (or lines) of interest should occur at 1/3 or 2/3 of the way up (or across) the frame, rather than in
thecentre.
Point-of-View Shot (POV)
Shows a view from the subject's
perspective.
Weather Shot
The subject is the weather. Can be
other purposes, e.g. background for graphics.
weather include:
flow, trees or anything else blowing in the wind
used for
shows.
rees wind,
tilted
"Headroom", "looking room", and "leading room".
which is strategically left empty. The shot of the baby crawling has some leading room for him to crawl
into, and the shot of his mother has some looking room for her to look into. Without this empty sp
the framing will look uncomfortable.
Headroom is the amount of space between the top of the subject's head and the top of the frame. A
common mistake in amateur video is to have far too much headroom, which doesn't look good and
wastes frame space. In any "person shot" tighter than a MS, there should be very little headroom.
Everything in your frame is important, not just the subject. What does the background look like? What's
the lighting like? Is there anything in the frame which is going to be dist
of the video?
Pay attention to the edges of your frame. Avoid having half objects in frame, especially people
(showing half of someone's face is very unflattering). Also try not to cut people of at the joints
bottom of the frame can cut across a person's stomach, but not their knees. It just doesn't look right.
These terms refer to the amount of room in the frame
distracting, or disrupt the continuity
space,
racting, — the
Once you're comfortable with the do's and don'ts, you can become more creative. Think about the best
way to convey the meaning of the shot. If it's a baby crawling, get down on the floor and see it from a
baby's point-of-view (POV). If it's a football game, maybe you need to get up high to see all the action.
Look for interesting and unusual shots. Most of your shots will probably be quite "straight"; that is, normal
shots from approximate adult eye-level. Try mixing in a few variations. Different angles and different
camera positions can make all the difference. For example; a shot can become much more dramatic if
shot from a low point. On the other hand, a new and interesting perspective can be obtained by looking
straight down on the scene. Be aware that looking up at a person can make them appear more imposing,
whereas looking down at a person can diminish them.
Aspect Ratios
The term Aspect Ratio refers to the width of a picture (or screen) in relation to its height. Ratios are
expressed in the form "width x height". For example, a 4x3 ratio means the picture is 4 units wide by 3
units high. Alternatively a colon may be used (e.g. 4:3 or 16:9) or a ratio to the number 1 (e.g. 1.33:1 or
1.78:1).
Note that the actual physical size of the picture is irrelevant — aspect ratio refers only to the relationship
between width and height.
The three most common aspect ratios are shown below. There are many variations in addition to these
but most video and film production uses one of these formats.
4x3
This is the standard television format used throughout the second half of the 20th
Century. Sometimes referred to as 12x9.
16x9
This format has gained acceptance as the new standard for widescreen
TV, DVD and high-definition video.
21x9 (Cinemascope)
A very wide screen format used for theatrical release movies.
4x3 Aspect Ratio
4x3 (AKA 4:3, 12:9, 12x9 or 1.33:1) is an aspect ratio used in traditional television broadcast. It means
the image is four units wide by three units high.
4x3 was the standard ratio used in early cinematic film production. It is rumored that theatrical widescreen
ratios were developed in part as a response to television. Film producers needed something to keep
theatrical films superior to television, and widescreen did the
In modern times, 4x3 has been adopted as the aspect ratio for IMAX film production.
4x3 works well for certain types of program, e.g. talking heads. However it is not considered to be the
best format for general use because the viewport is too narrow
aspect ratios are seen as more desirable, hence the gradual phasing out of 4x3 in favour of
video and television.
16x9 Aspect Ratio
16x9 (also written 16:9 or 1.78:1) is an
television production. When people talk about "widescreen" they usually mean 16x9, although technically
it is only one of several common widescreen formats.
16x9 is something of a compromise between 4x3 and much wider ratios like Cinemascope (used for
theatrical release). For this reason, movies shown on a 16x9 television in their native aspect ratio may still
have letterbox bars above and below the picture. Alternatively, the picture may be c
the pan & scan technique.
16x9 is the default aspect ratio for
video cameras.
Note: 16x9 can be achieved with the same pixel resolution as standard 4x3 video, by using wider
rectangular pixels.
Converting Between Aspect Ratios
The problem of converting pictures between different format
for years. Conversions almost always involve compromise and often annoy the end user, the film director,
or both.
For example, if we take the 21x9 image above and convert it to a narrower format, we will have to
quite a large part of the picture. The blue lines show where the picture will be cropped at 16x9, and the
red lines show a 4x3 version.
ndard job.
to simulate human vision. Widescreen
aspect ratio which is replacing the traditional 4x3
ase). cropped slightly as in
HDTV formats. It is becoming the standard for televisions and home
formats has plagued film and television companies
16x9 for
ratio in video and
ropped andard s lose
Convert 4x3 Video to 16x9 Widescreen
There are three ways to convert standard 4x3 video into 16x9 widescreen: Pillars, Stretch and Zoom.
Pillars
In this method there is no alteration to the image. The 4x3 footage is simply placed in the centre of the
16x9 frame, leaving vertical black bars (pillars) on each side of the frame.
This is the "pure" method as it does not distort or lose any part of the original image.
Stretch
To maximize screen use, the 4x3 image can be stretched horizontally to fill the available space.
This method is popular with widescreen TV owners watching traditional 4x3 television programs. In some
cases it can be surprisingly effective but purists shy away from it due to the picture distortion. Stretching is
especially bad at making people look fat.
Zoom
The third method is to magnify the 4x3 image until it fills the widescreen frame but keeps the correct
aspect ratio. This is similar to stretching, except that the image is zoomed in proportion without any
picture distortion. Unfortunately this means losing parts of the image at the top and bottom.
Recommendation
Unfortunately there is no ideal way to convert 4x3 into 16x9, but in order to preserve the original quality
and composition, pillars are the best option.
Convert 16x9 Video to 4x3
There are two common ways to convert widescreen video into the standard 4x3
format: Letterbox and Pan & Scan.
Letterbox
The letterbox format is so-called because it creates black bars above and below the image which gives
the appearance of looking through a letterbox. This is the "pure" method as it preserves the entire
widescreen frame. For this reason, letterboxing is preferred by film directors and enthusiasts.
To convert widescreen to 4x3 in a video project, the footage is simply imported and reduced in size until it
fits the 4x3 frame.
Pan and Scan
Pan and Scan is the traditional method of displaying widescreen content in broadcast television and old
VHS movies. The widescreen image is cropped at the sides and only the main part of the image is
shown.
This method has the advantage of utilizing the entire frame, but the disadvantage of losing parts of the
original image.
There are two ways to create a pan and scan video:
1. Crop the entire video and leave the centre 4x3 image. Technically, this is not "pan and scan" — it's just
a cropped image.
2. As the video progresses, the editor constantly adjusts the cropped image left and right to display the
most important part of the image (panning and scanning). This requires much more effort but results in
much better framing.
Recommendation
We recommend the letterbox format in most cases. It's the only faithful way to present widescreen
material in 4x3.
However there are some cases where pan and scan works quite well. If you can use this method without
losing important elements of the composition, it can be worth considering. In particular, if you shoot the
widescreen footage yourself, you can often shoot using 4x3 safe framing. This means you plan the
footage to work in either aspect ratio (but this still often involves compromise).
Pan and Scan
Pan and scan is a technique used to convert widescreen film or video footage into a conventional 4x3
aspect ratio (used by old-style television sets). Pan and scan involves a process of selecting the most
important part of the frame and discarding the other parts. In this way the image width is reduced to fit the
4x3 screen dimensions.
The example below shows how a shot can be cropped using pan and scan.
As you can see, the two versions are quite different. This is a good example of how much the original
framing is changed and how much the process is at the mercy of the pan and scan operator. This is why
many film directors hate pan and scan — it can easily destroy the intended composition.
The most popular alternative to pan and scan is the letterbox format, in which the original composition is
retained at the expense of placing black bars above and below the picture. Unfortunately this option is
widely disliked by viewers who feel that they are somehow losing part of the image.
Letterbox Format
Letterboxing is a technique used to display widescreen content on a traditional 4x3 screen such as those
used by old-style television sets. The technique is very simple — the picture frame is reduced in size until
it fits the screen, leaving black bars above and below the picture. The effect is like looking through the slot
of a letterbox, hence the name.
This is the "purest" method of converting widescreen films and programs to 4x3. The entire frame and
artistic composition is retained, unlike the alternative pan and scan method. For this reason, letterboxing
is generally preferred by film directors and enthusiasts.
However the letterbox format has not been as popular with the general public. The image is certainly
smaller, making it more difficult to see on a smaller television. The problem is worse in countries using the
NTSC standard, which has a lower resolution to begin with.
One of the most common complaints is that people feel they are losing part of the picture with
letterboxing. Some viewers feel they are being ripped off when a program doesn't fill their entire screen.
Of course this is somewhat ironic, given that the more widely-accepted pan and scan method does lose
part of the image.
Shooting "4x3 Safe" Footage
Shooting "4x3-safe" means shooting widescreen footage (usually 16x9) that can also be used
forstandard 4x3 distribution without ruining the picture composition. It attempts to get the best of both
worlds — shots that look good on both 16x9 and 4x3 televisions.
This technique assumes the widescreen footage will be converted to 4x3 by cropping the frame, i.e.
chopping of the left and right portions and leaving the centre portion. The idea is simply to frame your
shots so the important subjects and action are kept within the centre 4x3 area.
Many widescreen cameras have optional 4x3-safe guides. These are lines that appear in the viewfinder
showing the 4x3 safe area. The image below is a simulated viewfinder with white 4x3-safe guides. As you
shoot, you need to simultaneously frame the area inside the white lines as well as the entire widescreen
area.
The images below show how this shot will look on both aspect ratios:
4x3-safe shooting is a compromise. In order to keep the action in the centre, you often find that the
widescreen framing can't be as interesting as you would like. In the widescreen image above, for
example, the extra screen space at the edges is somewhat wasted. Too much emphasis on the centre
of the frame is not best practice for composition, so you may need to be creative to find ways of
making both versions attractive.
If the video project is to be converted using the pan & scan technique, you have more flexibility. In this
case your 4x3-safe area doesn't always have to be in the centre.
Harbir Singh
1.1 Internet
The global network of interconnected computer networks used by billions of users for sharing of
information and resources is called the Internet.
The ‘Internet Protocol Suite’ (TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) which is a
set of rules that govern the working of the internet.
It connects millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks from
local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking
technologies.
Nobody owns the Internet. But the Internet Society, a non-profit group established in 1992,
oversees the formation of policies and protocols that define how we use and interact with the
Internet.
ISP (Internet Service Provider) company that provides Internet connection services through its
equipment and communications lines for a monthly fee or by amount of use. (Eg: Sify
Broadband, Tata Indicom, your Local Cable Operator Providing internet facility etc)
1.2 Web
The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known as the Web, is a system of
interlinked Hypertext documents accessed via the Internet.
The ‘www’ is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet.
The Web also utilizes Web Browsers [Internet Explorer. Firefox Mozilla, Google Chrome etc] to
access Web documents called Web pages that are linked to each other via hyperlinks.Thus
one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and
navigate between them by using hyperlinks.
The Web uses the Hypertext Transfer protocol (HTTP), only one of the languages spoken over
the Internet, to transmit data.
Web Services, which use HTTP to allow applications to communicate in order to exchange
business logic, use the Web to share information.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the main International Standards Organization for
the World Wide Web which also engages in education and outreach, develops software and
serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web.
1.3 The Difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web
Most of us use the terms Internet and World Wide Web (aka. the Web) interchangeably, but in
fact the two terms, although relative, are not synonymous.
The ‘Internet’ is the global network of networks while the ‘World Wide Web’ is only a way of
accessing information over the medium of the Internet. The Web is just one of the ways that
information can be disseminated over the Internet. The Internet, not the Web, is also used
for e-mail, which relies on Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Usenet newsgroups,Instant
messaging and File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
So the Web is just a portion of the Internet, albeit a large portion, but the two terms are not
synonymous and should not be confused
1.4 HTML and HTTP
HTML
Hypertext Markup Languageis a computer language devised to create websites that can be
viewed by anyone connected to the Internet. HTML like any other Language, has code-words
and syntax.It is relatively easy to learn, yet quite powerful in what it allows you to create your
own WebPages. It is constantly undergoing revision and evolution to meet the demands and
requirements of the growing Internet audience under the direction of the W3C, the
organization charged with designing and maintaining the language.
Hypertext is the method by which you move around on the web by clicking on special text
called hyperlinks which take you to the next page. The fact that it ishyper just means it is not
lineari.e. you can go to any place on the Internet whenever you want by clicking on links –
and that there is no set order to do things in.
Markup is what HTML tags do to the text inside them. They mark it as a certain type of text.
(For example: <b>Bold</b> makes the text Bold).
HTML consists of a series of short codes typed into a text-file by the site author which are called
the tags. The text is then saved as an html file, and viewed through a browser, like Internet
Explorer or Netscape Navigator. This browser reads the file and translates the text into a visible
form rendering the page as the author had intended. Writing your ownHTML entails using tags
correctly to create your vision. You can use anything from a rudimentary text-editor to a
powerful graphical editor to create HTML pages.
The tags are what separate normal text from HTML code. You might know them as the words
between the <angle-brackets>. Different tags will perform different functions. The tags
themselves don’t appear when you view your page through a browser, but their effects do.
The simplest tags do nothing more than apply formatting to some text, like this:
Code:<b>these words will be bold</b>, and these will not.
Output: these words will be bold, and these will not.
Cascading Style sheets are used to control how your pages are presented, and make pages
more accessible. Basic special effects and interaction is provided by JavaScript, which adds
a lot of power to basic HTML.
HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.
HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web
servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you
enter a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing
it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.
HTML is the other main standard that controls how the World Wide Web works, controlling how
Web pages are formatted and displayed.
HTTP is called a stateless protocol because each command is executed independently,
without any knowledge of the commands that came before it. This is the main reason that it is
difficult to implement Web sites that react intelligently to user input. This shortcoming of HTTP is
being addressed in a number of new technologies,
including ActiveX,Java,JavaScriptand cookies.
Video & Television
Production
What is Video Production?
What you see on the television or film screen is the end result of
video production work. Video production includes everything from
coming up with an idea for a show, film, video, or commercial to getting the final product in the
consumer’s hands. Just a few of the steps in this process include: preparing the script, shooting the
video, digitizing raw footage for editing, rearranging the digitized clips to tell the story, adding
animations, creating sound effects, automatic dialogue replacement (ADR or looping) to create a
realistic soundtrack, and putting the finished work on film or disc for distribution.
The Production Process
The production process refers to the stages (phases) required to complete a media product, from the idea
to the final master copy. The process can apply to any type of media production including film, video,
television and audio recording. The stages in each medium vary; for example, there is obviously no
storyboard in an audio recording. However the same general concepts work for any medium.
The three main stages of production are:
1. Pre-production: Planning, scripting & storyboarding, etc.
2. Production: The actual shooting/recording.
3. Post-production: Everything between production and creating the final master copy.
Other stages include:
Financing: This happens before pre-production, and involves budget forecasting, finding investors,
etc.
Screenplay: This can be considered a separate stage before pre-production.
Distribution: After post-production, delivering the content to the audience (e.g. film prints, CD/DVD,
etc).
Pre-Production
Pre-production is a fairly loose term which refers to the tasks undertaken before production begins.
Exactly what is included in this stage depends on the medium and situation.
For a small video company, pre-production may refer to everything that happens before shooting begins,
for example, meeting with the client, research, storyboarding, location planning, etc.
For feature films, pre-production is more specific and only begins when other milestones have been met
such as financing, screenplay, casting and major staffing. In this case pre-production includes:
Location scouting
Prop and wardrobe identification and preparation
Special effects identification and preparation
Production schedule
Set construction
Script-locking (semi-finalization of the script)
Script read-through with cast, director and other interested parties
Production
In film and video, production refers to the part of the process in which footage is recorded. This is what
most people imagine when they think of a film being made — actors on sets, cameras rolling, etc. The
production phase is also known as principal photography.
In large feature films the beginning of the production phase marks the "point of no return", i.e. the point at
which it is no longer financially viable to cancel the project. At this point it is almost always cheaper to
continue until the project is finished than to deal with the financial fall-out of canceling.
The goal of principal photography is obviously to record all required shots, however it is fairly common to
shoot "pick-up" shots in post-production. Pick-up shots may be required when a mistake is noticed, a
script change is made (this is unusual), or even if a performance is deemed to be unsatisfactory.
In music, production usually refers to the creative direction of a project. Unlike a film producer who is
more of a manager, a music producer has a very hands-on role in the creative development.
Post-Production
Post-production is the third and final major phase of the production process. It is often referred to simply
as post, e.g. "We can sort that out in post".
There are many things which can happen in post-production. Common tasks include:
Editing video footage
Editing the soundtrack, adding sound effects, music, etc.
Adding titles and graphics
Color and exposure correction
Adding special effects
Re-shooting certain scenes if required ("pick-up" shots)
In some cases post-production is relatively straightforward, consisting of choosing and arranging footage
in the correct sequence. In most cases however, post-production is a time-consuming job taking longer
than the actual production phase.
Camera Moves
Here is an outline of the standard types of camera movement in film and
video. In the real world, many camera moves use a combination of
these techniques simultaneously.
Crab A less-common term for tracking or trucking.
Dolly The camera is mounted on a cart which travels along
tracks for a very smooth movement. Also known as
a tracking shot or trucking shot.
Dolly Zoom A technique in which the camera moves closer or further
from the subject while simultaneously adjusting the zoom
angle to keep the subject the same size in the frame.
Follow The camera physically follows the subject at a more or less
constant distance.
Pan Horizontal movement, left and right.
Pedestal (Ped) Moving the camera position vertically with respect to the
subject.
Tilt Vertical movement of the camera angle, i.e. pointing the
camera up and down (as opposed to moving the whole
camera up and down).
Track Roughly synonymous with the dolly shot, but often
defined more specifically as movement which stays a
constant distance from the action, especially side-to-side
movement.
Truck Another term for tracking or dollying.
Zoom Technically this isn't a camera move, but a change in the
lens focal length with gives the illusion of moving the
camera closer or further away.
Video Camera Filters
Camera filters are transparent or translucent optical elements which are either attached to the front of the
lens or included as part of the lens housing. Filters alter the properties of light before it reaches the
CCD-ChargedCoupleDevice.
Filters can be used to correct problems with light or to create certain effects.
Common types of filter include:
eutral Density (D)
A color-neutral filter which absorbs light evenly throughout the visible spectrum.
Used to reduce the amount of light coming through the lens in strong lighting
situations.
Ultra Violet (UV)
Video cameras are sensitive to both visible light and ultra violet (UV) light. UV is
invisible to humans but it can create a blue tinge and/or washed-out effect on
video, especially outside. A UV filter removes UV light while leaving visible light
intact. UV filters are also commonly used as a protective filter for the lens.
Polarizing
A special type of lens which removes polarized light, reducing the washed-out
effect sometimes created by reflected light. This results in more saturated, vibrant
colors. Polarized filters are usually mounted with a rotational adjustment to align
the polarization.
Diffusion
Effectively blurs the image for a slightly soft look. A mild diffusion filter can be
used to soften faces (remove wrinkles etc), a stronger filter can be used to create a
dream-sequence effect.
Sepia
Creates a sepia-tone effect, commonly used to depict historical images or
flashbacks.
Fog
Creates a fog effect.
Color Conversion /
Correction
Adjusts the color temperature of the light.
Star Effect
Makes single points of light stretch out in various star patterns. This effect is
created by numerous fine etches in the filter, and can be used to give a dramatic,
sophisticated or glamorous look to the image.
Audio
Virtually all consumer-level cameras come with built-in microphones, usually hi-fi stereo. These work fine,
and are all you need for most general work.
Getting better results with audio is actually quite difficult and is a whole subject in itself. We won't go into it
much here — you just need to be aware that audio is very important and shouldn't be overlooked.
If you're keen, try plugging an external microphone into the "mic input" socket of your camera (if it has
one). There are two reasons why you might want to do this:
1. You may have a mic which is more suited to the type of work you are doing than the camera's built-in
mic. Often, the better mic will simply be mounted on top of the camera.
2. You might need to have the mic in a different position to the camera. For example, when covering a
speech, the camera could be at the back of the room with a long audio lead running to the stage,
where you have a mic mounted on the pedestal.
The level at which your audio is recorded is important. Most cameras have an "auto-gain control", which
adjusts the audio level automatically. Consumer-level cameras are usually set up like this, and it works
well in most situations. If you have a manual audio level control, it's a good idea to learn how to use it
If possible, try to keep the background (ambient) noise level more or less consistent. This adds
smoothness to the flow of the production. Of course, some shots will require sudden changes in ambient
audio for effect.
Listen to what people are saying and build it into the video. Try not to start and finish shots while
someone is talking — there's nothing worse than a video full of half-sentences.
Be very wary of background music while shooting — this can result is music that jumps every time the
shot changes, like listening to a badly scratched record. If you can, turn the music right down or off.
One more thing... be careful of wind noise. Even the slightest breeze can ruin your audio. Many cameras
have a "low-cut filter", sometimes referred to as a "wind-noise filter" or something similar. These do help,
but a better solution is to block the wind. You can use a purpose-designed wind sock, or try making one
yourself.
Video Camera Shutter
The term shutter comes from still photography, where it describes a mechanical "door" between the
camera lens and the film. When a photo is taken, the door opens for an instant and the film is exposed to
the incoming light. The speed at which the shutter opens and closes can be varied
speed, the shorter the period of time the shutter is open, and the less light falls on the film.
Shutter speed is measured in fractions of a se
open for one sixtieth of a second. A speed of 1/500 is faster, and 1/10000 is very fast indeed.
Video camera shutters work quite differently from still film camera shutters but the result is basically
same. (The technical difference is that, rather than using a mechanical device, the shutter speed is
adjusted by electronically varying the amount of time the
nothing to you, don't worry. It really doesn't matter
The shutter "opens" and "closes" once for each frame of video; that is, 25 times per second for PAL and
30 times per second for NTSC. Thus, if a camera has its shutter set to 1/60, each frame will be exposed
for 1/60 second. If the speed is increased to 1/120, each frame will be exposed for 1/120 of a second.
Remember, the shutter speed does not affect the frame rate, which is
cases always stays the same.
The main effect of higher shutter speeds is that individual frames appear sharper, due to the minimisation
of motion blur. Motion blur occurs when the subject moves within the frame while the sh
less time the shutter is open (i.e. the faster the shutter speed), the less movement will take place.
One side-effect of higher shutter speeds is that movement appears more jerky. This is because motion
blur tends to smooth consecutive frames together.
The three shots below were each taken as the car travelled past a stationary camera at 100 km/hr. With
the shutter off, motion blur is most pronounced. As the shutter speed is increased, the image becomes
sharper.
Shutter Off
Higher shutter speeds are common in sports coverage. Watch any fast
shutter effect. Notice how the slow-motion replays look, especially when they freeze the last frame.
Note: As a result of the reduced exposure time with high shutter speeds, the image may appear darker
unless the iris is opened to compensate.
1. Most cameras have a single set frame rate which depe
manufactured for. PAL cameras use 25 fps, NTSC cameras use 30 (29.97) fps. Some cameras can swap
between 25 and 30 fps, and some specialist cameras have a higher frame rate, e.g. super
cameras operate at 75 or more frames per second. In most cases though, your camera will have a single
set frame rate that you never have to worry about.
Framing
second. A speed of 1/60 second means that the shutter is
CCD is allowed to build a cha
how the shutter works, it's the effect it has that counts.)
completely separate and in most
. rames 1/120 second 1/500 second
fast-action sport to see the "flickering"
depends on the TV standard of the country they are
— the faster the
cond. the
charge. If this means
shutter is open. The
nds super-slow-mo
Shots are all about composition. Rather than
image. As mentioned previously, framing is the process of creating composition.
Notes:
Framing technique is very subjective. What one person finds dramatic, another may find pointless.
What we're looking at here are a few accepted industry guidelines which you
thumb.
The rules of framing video images are essentially the same as those for still photography.
Basic shot types
There is a general convention in the video industry which assigns names to the most common types of
shots. The names and their exact meanings may vary, but the following examples give a rough guide to
the standard descriptions. The point isn't knowing the
as much as understanding their purposes
Basic shots are referred to in terms relative to the subject. For example, a "close up" has to be a close
up of something. A close up of a person could also be described as a wide shot of a face, or a very wide
shot of a nose.
The subject in all of the following shots is a boy
pointing the camera at the subject, you need to
should use as rules of
names of the shot types (although it's very useful),
purposes.
d standing in front of a house.
EWS (Extreme Wide Shot)
In the EWS, the view is so far from the subject that
he isn't even visible. The point of this shot is to
show the subject's surroundings. The EWS is often
used as an establishing shot — the first shot
new scene, designed to show the audience where
the action is taking place.
VWS (Very Wide Shot)
The very wide shot is much closer to the subject
than an extreme wide shot, but still much further
away than a wide shot. The subject is visible here
but only just (in this case it's a boy leaning against
the fence). The emphasis is very much on placing
him in his environment. This often works as an
establishing shot, in which the audience is shown
the whole setting so they can orient themselves
compose an
of a
, .
WS (Wide Shot)
In the WS, the subject takes up the full frame. In
this case, the boy's feet are almost at the bottom
frame, and his head is almost at the top. Obviously
the subject doesn't take up the whole width of the
frame, since this is as close as we can get without
losing any part of him. The small amount of room
above and below the subject can be thought of as
safety room — you don't want to be cutting the top
of the head off. It would also look uncomfortable if
the feet and head were exactly at the top and
bottom of frame
emotion or intense concentration. It also works well when the intent
it is frequently used by television news presenters. You will often see a story begin with a MS of the
reporter (providing information), followed by closer shots of interview subjects (providing reactions and
emotion
of
MS (Mid Shot)
The MS shows some part of the subject in more
detail, whilst still showing enough for the audience
to feel as if they were looking at the whole subject.
In fact, this is an approximation of how you would
see a person "in the flesh" if you were having a
casual conversation. You wouldn't be paying any
attention to their lower body, so that part of the
picture is unnecessary, The MS is appropriate
when the subject is speaking without too much
is to deliver information, which is why
MCU (Medium Close Up)
Half way between a MS and a CU. This shot
shows the face more clearly, without getting
uncomfortably close
CU(Close Up)
In the closeup shot, a certain feature or part of
the subject takes up most of the frame. A close
up of a person usually means a close up of their
ual ,
face (unless specified otherwise).Close
as a cut-in.A close-up of a person emphasi
more appropriate for delivering facts and general informa
which convey
into the subject's
shares their feelings
CA (Cutaway)
A cutaway is a shot that's usually of something other
than the current action. It could be a different subject
(e.g. these children), a CU of a different
subject (e.g. a CU of the subject's hands), or just
about anything else. The CA is used as a "buffer"
between shots (to help the editing process), or to
add interest/information.
Close-ups are obviously useful for showing detail and can also be used
emphasizes their emotional state. Whereas a mid-shot
information, a close-up exaggerates facial expressions
emotion. The viewer is drawn
personal space and
ECU (Extreme Close Up)
You would normally need a specific reason to get
this close. It is too close to show general reactions
or emotion except in very dramatic scenes.
part of the
Cut-In
Shows some (other) part of the subject in
detail.Like a cutaway, but specifically refers to
showing some part of the subject in detail.
Can be used purely as an edit point, or to
emphasise emotion etc. For example, hand
movements can show enthusiasm, agitation,
nervousness, etc
or wide-shot is
erates ,
side facing the camera, you get the idea that these people
have equal prominence in the frame, the implication is that they will provide equal input. Of course this
doesn't always apply, for example, there are many instances in which it's obvious one of the people is a
presenter and the other is a guest. In any case, the two
A two-shot could also involve movement or action. It is a good way to follow the interaction between two
people without getting distracted by their sur
Two-Shot
There are a few variations on this
basic idea is to have a comfortable shot of two
people. Often used in interviews, or when two
presenters are hosting a show.
A "One-Shot" could be a mid-shot
these subjects. A "Three-Shot", unsurprisingly,
contains three people. Two-shots are good for
establishing a relationship between subjects. If
you see two sports presenters standing side by
are going to be the show's co
two-shot is a natural way to introduce two people.
surroundings
(OSS) Over-the-Shoulder Shot
This shot is framed from behind a person
who is looking at the subject. The person
facing the subject should usually occupy
about 1/3 of the frame.
This shot helps to establish the position of
each person, and get the feel of looking at
one person from the other's point of
view.It's common to cut between these
shots during a conversation, alternating the
view between the different speakers
Noddy Shot
Usually refers to a shot of the interviewer
listening and reacting to the subject.
Common in interviews, this is a shot of the
person listening and reacting to the subject.
In fact, when shooting interviews with one
camera, the usual routine is to shoot the
subject (using OSS and one
entire interview, then shoot some noddies
of the interviewer once the interview is
finished and are edited into the interview
later.
one, but the
of either of
co-hosts. As they
er's istening one-shots) for the
In this type of shot the subject is the weather. The sky takes up at least 2/3 of the frame. This type of shot
is common in television programs where the weather is of particular interest, e.g. sports
Although the usual purpose of this shot is to show the weather, it is also useful as an establishing shot,
for setting the general mood or for overlaying graphics.A weather shot doesn't have to show the sky.
Other shots often used to illustrate weat
Puddles, drain spouts or any example of rainwater flow
People sunbathing, Snowmen, snowball fights, snow sledding, etc.
Some Rules of Framing
Look for horizontal and vertical lines in the frame (e.g. the horizon, poles, etc). Make sure the horizontals
are level, and the verticals are straight up and down (unless of course you're purposely going for a
effect).
THE RULE OF THIRDS: This rule divides the frame into nine sections, as in the first frame below.
Points (or lines) of interest should occur at 1/3 or 2/3 of the way up (or across) the frame, rather than in
thecentre.
Point-of-View Shot (POV)
Shows a view from the subject's
perspective.
Weather Shot
The subject is the weather. Can be
other purposes, e.g. background for graphics.
weather include:
flow, trees or anything else blowing in the wind
used for
shows.
rees wind,
tilted
"Headroom", "looking room", and "leading room".
which is strategically left empty. The shot of the baby crawling has some leading room for him to crawl
into, and the shot of his mother has some looking room for her to look into. Without this empty sp
the framing will look uncomfortable.
Headroom is the amount of space between the top of the subject's head and the top of the frame. A
common mistake in amateur video is to have far too much headroom, which doesn't look good and
wastes frame space. In any "person shot" tighter than a MS, there should be very little headroom.
Everything in your frame is important, not just the subject. What does the background look like? What's
the lighting like? Is there anything in the frame which is going to be dist
of the video?
Pay attention to the edges of your frame. Avoid having half objects in frame, especially people
(showing half of someone's face is very unflattering). Also try not to cut people of at the joints
bottom of the frame can cut across a person's stomach, but not their knees. It just doesn't look right.
These terms refer to the amount of room in the frame
distracting, or disrupt the continuity
space,
racting, — the
Once you're comfortable with the do's and don'ts, you can become more creative. Think about the best
way to convey the meaning of the shot. If it's a baby crawling, get down on the floor and see it from a
baby's point-of-view (POV). If it's a football game, maybe you need to get up high to see all the action.
Look for interesting and unusual shots. Most of your shots will probably be quite "straight"; that is, normal
shots from approximate adult eye-level. Try mixing in a few variations. Different angles and different
camera positions can make all the difference. For example; a shot can become much more dramatic if
shot from a low point. On the other hand, a new and interesting perspective can be obtained by looking
straight down on the scene. Be aware that looking up at a person can make them appear more imposing,
whereas looking down at a person can diminish them.
Aspect Ratios
The term Aspect Ratio refers to the width of a picture (or screen) in relation to its height. Ratios are
expressed in the form "width x height". For example, a 4x3 ratio means the picture is 4 units wide by 3
units high. Alternatively a colon may be used (e.g. 4:3 or 16:9) or a ratio to the number 1 (e.g. 1.33:1 or
1.78:1).
Note that the actual physical size of the picture is irrelevant — aspect ratio refers only to the relationship
between width and height.
The three most common aspect ratios are shown below. There are many variations in addition to these
but most video and film production uses one of these formats.
4x3
This is the standard television format used throughout the second half of the 20th
Century. Sometimes referred to as 12x9.
16x9
This format has gained acceptance as the new standard for widescreen
TV, DVD and high-definition video.
21x9 (Cinemascope)
A very wide screen format used for theatrical release movies.
4x3 Aspect Ratio
4x3 (AKA 4:3, 12:9, 12x9 or 1.33:1) is an aspect ratio used in traditional television broadcast. It means
the image is four units wide by three units high.
4x3 was the standard ratio used in early cinematic film production. It is rumored that theatrical widescreen
ratios were developed in part as a response to television. Film producers needed something to keep
theatrical films superior to television, and widescreen did the
In modern times, 4x3 has been adopted as the aspect ratio for IMAX film production.
4x3 works well for certain types of program, e.g. talking heads. However it is not considered to be the
best format for general use because the viewport is too narrow
aspect ratios are seen as more desirable, hence the gradual phasing out of 4x3 in favour of
video and television.
16x9 Aspect Ratio
16x9 (also written 16:9 or 1.78:1) is an
television production. When people talk about "widescreen" they usually mean 16x9, although technically
it is only one of several common widescreen formats.
16x9 is something of a compromise between 4x3 and much wider ratios like Cinemascope (used for
theatrical release). For this reason, movies shown on a 16x9 television in their native aspect ratio may still
have letterbox bars above and below the picture. Alternatively, the picture may be c
the pan & scan technique.
16x9 is the default aspect ratio for
video cameras.
Note: 16x9 can be achieved with the same pixel resolution as standard 4x3 video, by using wider
rectangular pixels.
Converting Between Aspect Ratios
The problem of converting pictures between different format
for years. Conversions almost always involve compromise and often annoy the end user, the film director,
or both.
For example, if we take the 21x9 image above and convert it to a narrower format, we will have to
quite a large part of the picture. The blue lines show where the picture will be cropped at 16x9, and the
red lines show a 4x3 version.
ndard job.
to simulate human vision. Widescreen
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ase). cropped slightly as in
HDTV formats. It is becoming the standard for televisions and home
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Convert 4x3 Video to 16x9 Widescreen
There are three ways to convert standard 4x3 video into 16x9 widescreen: Pillars, Stretch and Zoom.
Pillars
In this method there is no alteration to the image. The 4x3 footage is simply placed in the centre of the
16x9 frame, leaving vertical black bars (pillars) on each side of the frame.
This is the "pure" method as it does not distort or lose any part of the original image.
Stretch
To maximize screen use, the 4x3 image can be stretched horizontally to fill the available space.
This method is popular with widescreen TV owners watching traditional 4x3 television programs. In some
cases it can be surprisingly effective but purists shy away from it due to the picture distortion. Stretching is
especially bad at making people look fat.
Zoom
The third method is to magnify the 4x3 image until it fills the widescreen frame but keeps the correct
aspect ratio. This is similar to stretching, except that the image is zoomed in proportion without any
picture distortion. Unfortunately this means losing parts of the image at the top and bottom.
Recommendation
Unfortunately there is no ideal way to convert 4x3 into 16x9, but in order to preserve the original quality
and composition, pillars are the best option.
Convert 16x9 Video to 4x3
There are two common ways to convert widescreen video into the standard 4x3
format: Letterbox and Pan & Scan.
Letterbox
The letterbox format is so-called because it creates black bars above and below the image which gives
the appearance of looking through a letterbox. This is the "pure" method as it preserves the entire
widescreen frame. For this reason, letterboxing is preferred by film directors and enthusiasts.
To convert widescreen to 4x3 in a video project, the footage is simply imported and reduced in size until it
fits the 4x3 frame.
Pan and Scan
Pan and Scan is the traditional method of displaying widescreen content in broadcast television and old
VHS movies. The widescreen image is cropped at the sides and only the main part of the image is
shown.
This method has the advantage of utilizing the entire frame, but the disadvantage of losing parts of the
original image.
There are two ways to create a pan and scan video:
1. Crop the entire video and leave the centre 4x3 image. Technically, this is not "pan and scan" — it's just
a cropped image.
2. As the video progresses, the editor constantly adjusts the cropped image left and right to display the
most important part of the image (panning and scanning). This requires much more effort but results in
much better framing.
Recommendation
We recommend the letterbox format in most cases. It's the only faithful way to present widescreen
material in 4x3.
However there are some cases where pan and scan works quite well. If you can use this method without
losing important elements of the composition, it can be worth considering. In particular, if you shoot the
widescreen footage yourself, you can often shoot using 4x3 safe framing. This means you plan the
footage to work in either aspect ratio (but this still often involves compromise).
Pan and Scan
Pan and scan is a technique used to convert widescreen film or video footage into a conventional 4x3
aspect ratio (used by old-style television sets). Pan and scan involves a process of selecting the most
important part of the frame and discarding the other parts. In this way the image width is reduced to fit the
4x3 screen dimensions.
The example below shows how a shot can be cropped using pan and scan.
As you can see, the two versions are quite different. This is a good example of how much the original
framing is changed and how much the process is at the mercy of the pan and scan operator. This is why
many film directors hate pan and scan — it can easily destroy the intended composition.
The most popular alternative to pan and scan is the letterbox format, in which the original composition is
retained at the expense of placing black bars above and below the picture. Unfortunately this option is
widely disliked by viewers who feel that they are somehow losing part of the image.
Letterbox Format
Letterboxing is a technique used to display widescreen content on a traditional 4x3 screen such as those
used by old-style television sets. The technique is very simple — the picture frame is reduced in size until
it fits the screen, leaving black bars above and below the picture. The effect is like looking through the slot
of a letterbox, hence the name.
This is the "purest" method of converting widescreen films and programs to 4x3. The entire frame and
artistic composition is retained, unlike the alternative pan and scan method. For this reason, letterboxing
is generally preferred by film directors and enthusiasts.
However the letterbox format has not been as popular with the general public. The image is certainly
smaller, making it more difficult to see on a smaller television. The problem is worse in countries using the
NTSC standard, which has a lower resolution to begin with.
One of the most common complaints is that people feel they are losing part of the picture with
letterboxing. Some viewers feel they are being ripped off when a program doesn't fill their entire screen.
Of course this is somewhat ironic, given that the more widely-accepted pan and scan method does lose
part of the image.
Shooting "4x3 Safe" Footage
Shooting "4x3-safe" means shooting widescreen footage (usually 16x9) that can also be used
forstandard 4x3 distribution without ruining the picture composition. It attempts to get the best of both
worlds — shots that look good on both 16x9 and 4x3 televisions.
This technique assumes the widescreen footage will be converted to 4x3 by cropping the frame, i.e.
chopping of the left and right portions and leaving the centre portion. The idea is simply to frame your
shots so the important subjects and action are kept within the centre 4x3 area.
Many widescreen cameras have optional 4x3-safe guides. These are lines that appear in the viewfinder
showing the 4x3 safe area. The image below is a simulated viewfinder with white 4x3-safe guides. As you
shoot, you need to simultaneously frame the area inside the white lines as well as the entire widescreen
area.
The images below show how this shot will look on both aspect ratios:
4x3-safe shooting is a compromise. In order to keep the action in the centre, you often find that the
widescreen framing can't be as interesting as you would like. In the widescreen image above, for
example, the extra screen space at the edges is somewhat wasted. Too much emphasis on the centre
of the frame is not best practice for composition, so you may need to be creative to find ways of
making both versions attractive.
If the video project is to be converted using the pan & scan technique, you have more flexibility. In this
case your 4x3-safe area doesn't always have to be in the centre.